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d to a specific type of 3d printer for instance fdm printers use fdm file formats 88 this g code file can then be printed with 3d printing client software which loads the g code and uses it to instruct the 3d printer during the 3d printing process printer resolution describes layer thickness and x y resolution in dots per inch dpi or micrometers μm typical layer thickness is around 100 μm 250 dpi although some machines can print layers as thin as 16 μm 1 600 dpi 89 x y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers the particles 3d dots are around 0 01 to 0 1 μm 2 540 000 to 250 000 dpi in diameter 90 for that printer resolution specifying a mesh resolution of 0 01 0 03 mm and a chord length 0 016 mm generates an optimal stl output file for a given model input file 91 specifying higher resolution results in larger files without increase in print quality 3 30 timelapse of an 80 minute video of an object being made out of pla using molten polymer deposition construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously finishing though the printer produced resolution and surface finish are sufficient for some applications post processing and finishing methods allow for benefits such as greater dimensional accuracy smoother surfaces and other modifications such as coloration the surface finish of a 3d printed part can improved using subtractive methods such as sanding and bead blasting when smoothing parts that require dimensional accuracy it is important to take into account the volume of the material being removed 92 some printable polymers such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene abs allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor processes 93 based on acetone or similar solvents some additive manufacturing techniques can benefit from annealing as a post processing step annealing a 3d printed part allows for better internal layer bonding due to recrystallization of the part it allows for an increase in mechanical properties some of which are fracture toughness 94 flexural strength 95 impact resistance 96 and heat resistance 96 annealing a component may not be suitable for applications where dimensional accuracy is required as it can introduce warpage or shrinkage due to heating and cooling 97 some additively manufactured parts especially parts that are mission critical are post processed with hot isostatic pressing to improve the density and to configure the microstructure to get the required mechanical performance of the printed parts 98 99 additive or subtractive hybrid manufacturing ashm is a method that involves producing a 3d printed part and using machining subtractive manufacturing to remove material 100 machining operations can be completed after each layer or after the entire 3d print has been completed depending on the application requirements these hybrid methods allow for 3d printed parts to achieve better surface finishes and dimensional accuracy 101 the layered structure of traditional additive manufacturing processes leads to a stair stepping effect on part surfaces that are curved or tilted with respect to the building platform the effect strongly depends on the layer height used as well as the orientation of a part surface inside the building process 102 this effect can be minimized using variable layer heights or adaptive layer heights these methods decrease the layer height in places where higher quality is needed 103 painting a 3d printed part offers a range of finishes and appearances that may not be achievable through most 3d printing techniques the process typically involves several steps such as surface preparation priming and painting 104 these steps help prepare the surface of the part and ensuring the paint adheres properly some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials simultaneously these techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously and can produce parts that may not necessarily require painting some printing techniques require internal supports to be built to support overhanging features during construction these supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved if using a water soluble support material such as pva after completing a print some commercial metal 3d printers involve cutting the metal component off the metal substrate after deposition a new process for the gmaw 3d printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove aluminium 105 or steel 106 materials detail of the stoofbrug nl in amsterdam the world s first 3d printed metal bridge 107 traditionally 3d printing focused on polymers for printing due to the ease of manufacturing and handling polymeric materials however the method has rapidly evolved to not only print various polymers 108 but also metals 109 110 chocolates 111 and ceramics 112 making 3d printing a versatile option for manufacturing layer by layer fabrication of three dimensional physical models is a modern concept that stems from the ever growing cad industry more specifically the solid modeling side of cad before solid modeling was introduced in the late 1980s three dimensional models were created with wire frames and surfaces 113 but in all cases the layers of materials are controlled by the printer and the material properties the three dimensional material layer is controlled by the deposition rate as set by the printer operator and stored in a computer file the earliest printed patented material was a hot melt type ink for printing patterns using a heated metal alloy charles hull filed the first patent on 8 august 1984 to use a uv cured acrylic resin using a uv masked light source at uvp corp to build a simple model the sla 1 was the first sl product announced by 3d systems at autofact exposition detroit november 1978 the sla 1 beta shipped in jan 1988 to baxter healthcare pratt and whitney general motors and amp the first production sla 1 shipped to precision castparts in april 1988 the uv resin material changed over quickly to an epoxy based material resin in both cases sla 1 models needed uv oven curing after being rinsed in a solvent cleaner to remove uncured boundary resin a post cure apparatus pca was sold with all systems the early resin printers required a blade to move fresh resin over the model on each layer the layer thickness was 0 006 inches and the hecd laser model of the sla 1 was 12 watts and swept across the surface at 30 inch per second uvp was acquired by 3d systems in january 1990 114 a review of the history shows that a number of materials resins plastic powder plastic filament and hot melt plastic ink were used in the 1980s for patents in the rapid prototyping field masked lamp uv cured resin was also introduced by cubital s itzchak pomerantz in the soldier 5600 carl deckard s dtm laser sintered thermoplastic powders and adhesive laser cut paper lom stacked to form objects by michael feygin before 3d systems made its first announcement scott crump was also working with extruded melted plastic filament modeling fdm and drop deposition had been patented by william e masters a week after hull s patent in 1984 but he had to discover thermoplastic inkjets introduced by visual impact corporation 3d printer in 1992 using inkjets from howtek inc before he formed bpm to bring out his own 3d printer product in 1994 114 the most common polymers for personal 3d printers are polylactic acid pla and petg multi material 3d printing main article multi material 3d printing a multi material 3dbenchy efforts to achieve multi material 3d printing range from enhanced fdm like processes like voxeljet to novel voxel based printing technologies like layered assembly 115 a drawback of many existing 3d printing technologies is that they only allow one material to be printed at a time limiting many potential applications that require the integration of different materials in the same object multi material 3d printing solves this problem by allowing objects of complex and heterogeneous arrangements of materials to be manufactured using a single printer here a material must be specified for each voxel or 3d printing pixel element inside the final object volume the process can be fraught with complications however due to the isolated and monolithic algorithms some commercial devices have sought to solve these issues such as building a spec2fab translator but the progress is still very limited 116 nonetheless in the medical industry a concept of 3d printed pills and vaccines has been presented 117 with this new concept multiple medications can be combined which is expected to decrease many risks with more and more applications of multi material 3d printing the costs of daily life and high technology development will become inevitably lower metallographic materials of 3d printing is also being researched 118 by classifying each material cimp 3d can systematically perform 3d printing with multiple materials 119 4d printing main article 4d printing using 3d printing and multi material structures in additive manufacturing has allowed for the design and creation of what is called 4d printing 4d printing is an additive manufacturing process in which the printed object changes shape with time temperature or some other type of stimulation 4d printing allows for the creation of dynamic structures with adjustable shapes properties or functionality the smart stimulus responsive materials that are created using 4d printing can be activated to create calculated responses such as self assembly self repair multi functionality reconfiguration and shape shifting this allows for customized printing of shape changing and shape memory materials 120 4d printing has the potential to find new applications and uses for materials plastics composites metals etc and has the potential to create new alloys and composites that were not viable before the versatility of this technology and materials can lead to advances in multiple fields of industry including space commercial and medical fields the repeatability precision and material range for 4d printing must increase to allow the process to become more practical throughout these industries to become a viable industrial production option there are a few challenges that 4d printing must overcome the challenges of 4d printing include the fact that the microstructures of these printed smart materials must be close to or better than the parts obtained through traditional machining processes new and customizable materials need to be developed that have the ability to consistently respond to varying external stimuli and change to their desired shape there is also a need to design new software for the various technique types of 4d printing the 4d printing software will need to take into consideration the base smart material printing technique and structural and geometric requirements of the design 121 processes this section is an excerpt from 3d printing processes edit a variety of processes equipment and materials are used in the production of a three dimensional object via additive manufacturing techniques include jetting extrusion additive friction stir deposition powder bed fusion binder jetting stereolithography computed axial lithography liquid alternative lamination directed energy deposition selective powder deposition and cryogenic manufacturing applications main article applications of 3d printing this section may benefit from being shortened by the use of summary style summary style may involve the splitting of sections of text to one or more sub topic articles which are then summarized in the main article the audi rsq was made with rapid prototyping industrial kuka robots 3d printing or additive manufacturing has been used in manufacturing medical industry and sociocultural sectors e g cultural heritage to create successful commercial technology 122 more recently 3d printing has also been used in the humanitarian and development sector to produce a range of medical items prosthetics spares and repairs 123 the earliest application of additive manufacturing was on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum for example rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants and its mission was to reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods such as cnc milling turning and precision grinding 124 in the 2010s additive manufacturing entered production to a much greater extent food additive manufacturing of food is being developed by squeezing out food layer by layer into three dimensional objects a large variety of foods are appropriate candidates such as chocolate and candy and flat foods such as crackers pasta 125 and pizza 126 127 nasa is looking into the technology in order to create 3d printed food to limit food waste and to make food that is designed to fit an astronaut s dietary needs 128 in 2018 italian bioengineer giuseppe scionti developed a technology allowing the production of fibrous plant based meat analogues using a custom 3d bioprinter mimicking meat texture and nutritional values 129 130 fashion 3d printed necklace 3d printing has entered the world of clothing with fashion designers experimenting with 3d printed bikinis shoes and dresses 131 in commercial production nike used 3d printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 vapor laser talon football shoe for players of american football and new balance has 3d manufactured custom fit shoes for athletes 131 132 3d printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on demand custom fit and styling although they cannot print the lenses on demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping 133 armor design strategies can be enhanced by taking inspiration from nature and prototyping those designs using am 134 transportation a 3d printed jet engine model in motor vehicles and aircraft additive manufacturing is beginning to transform both unibody and fuselage design and production and powertrain design and production for example general electric uses high end 3d printers to build parts for turbines 135 many of these systems are used for rapid prototyping before mass production methods are employed other prominent examples include in early 2014 swedish sports car manufacturer koenigsegg announced the one 1 a sports car that utilizes many components that were 3d printed 136 urbee is the first car produced using 3d printing the bodywork and car windows were printed 137 138 139 in 2014 local motors debuted strati a functioning vehicle that was entirely 3d printed using abs plastic and carbon fiber except the 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