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period many cities including ypres bruges and ghent obtained their city charter the hanseatic league stimulated trade in the region and the period saw the erection of many gothic cathedrals and city halls 16 with the decline of the holy roman emperors power starting in the 13th century the low countries were largely left to their own devices the lack of imperial protection also meant that the french and english began vying for influence in 1214 king philip ii of france defeated the count of flanders in the battle of bouvines and forced his submission to the french crown through the remainder of the 13th century french control over flanders steadily increased until 1302 when an attempt at total annexation by philip iv met a stunning defeat when count guy humiliated the french knights at the battle of the golden spurs philip launched a new campaign that ended with the inconclusive battle of mons en pévèle in 1304 the king imposed harsh peace terms on flanders which included ceding the important textile making centers of lille and douai thereafter flanders remained a french tributary until the start of the hundred years war in 1337 paris s influence in the low countries was counterbalanced by england which maintained important ties to the coastal ports and came to dominate the wool shipping business flemish cloth remained a highly valued product highly dependent on english wool any interruption in the supply of that invariably resulted in riots and violence from the weavers guilds flanders received imports from other areas of europe but itself purchased little abroad except wine from spain and france bruges became a great commercial center after the hanseatic league set up business there from early on the low countries began to develop as a commercial and manufacturing center merchants became the dominant class in the towns with the nobility largely limited to countryside estates history of the low countries schematic further information lists of rulers in the low countries frisii germanic tribes belgae celts frisii cana nefates a chamavi tubantes b gallia belgica 55 bc c 5th century ad germania inferior 83 c 5th century salian franks batavi a unpopulated 4th c 5th centuries saxons salian franks a 4th c 5th centuries frisian kingdom c 6th century 734 frankish kingdom 481 843 carolingian empire 800 843 austrasia 511 687 middle francia 843 855 west francia from 843 middle francia 843 855 kingdom of lotharingia c 855 959 duchy of lower lorraine d from 959 kingdom of lotharingia c 855 959 duchy of lower lorraine d from 959 kingdom of lotharingia c 855 959 duchy of lower lorraine d from 959 frisia county of flanders e 862 1384 frisian freedom f 11th 16th centuries county of holland g 880 1432 bishopric of utrecht h 695 1456 duchy of brabant i 1183 1430 duchy of guelders j 1046 1543 county of hainaut 1071 1432 county of namur 981 1421 prince bishopric of liège k 980 1791 duchy of luxembourg 1059 1443 burgundian netherlands 1384 1482 burgundian netherlands 1384 1482 habsburg netherlands 1482 1795 seventeen provinces after 1543 l habsburg netherlands 1482 1795 seventeen provinces after 1543 l dutch republic 1581 1795 spanish netherlands 1556 1714 spanish netherlands 1556 1714 austrian netherlands 1714 1795 austrian netherlands 1714 1795 united states of belgium 1790 republic of liège 1789 91 united states of belgium 1790 austrian netherlands 1795 1797 p bish of liège 1791 1794 austrian netherlands 1795 1797 batavian republic 1795 1806 kingdom of holland 1806 1810 associated with french first republic 1795 1804 part of first french empire 1804 1815 part of first french empire 1810 1813 sovereign principality of the netherlands 1813 1815 united kingdom of the netherlands 1815 1830 grand duchy of luxembourg from 1815 kingdom of the netherlands from 1839 kingdom of belgium from 1830 grand duchy of luxembourg from 1890 by 1433 most of the belgian and luxembourgish territory became part of burgundy under philip the good when mary of burgundy granddaughter of philip the good married maximilian i the low countries became habsburg territory the holy roman empire was unified with spain under the habsburg dynasty after charles v inherited several domains view of antwerp painted c 1540 map illustrating the formation of the habsburg netherlands 1482 1543 especially during the burgundy period the 15th and 16th centuries tournai bruges ypres ghent brussels and antwerp took turns at being major european centers for commerce industry especially textiles and art bruges had a strategic location at the crossroads of the northern hanseatic league trade and the southern trade routes bruges was already included in the circuit of the flemish and french cloth fairs at the beginning of the 13th century but when the old system of fairs broke down the entrepreneurs of bruges innovated they developed or borrowed from italy new forms of merchant capitalism they employed new forms of economic exchange including bills of exchange i e promissory notes and letters of credit 17 antwerp eagerly welcomed foreign traders most notably the portuguese pepper and spice traders 18 19 an altarpiece by the brabantian painter rogier van der weyden 1399 1464 who was at the forefront of the northern renaissance in art the renaissance was represented by the flemish primitives a group of painters active primarily in the southern netherlands in the 15th and early 16th centuries and the franco flemish composers flemish tapestries and in the 16th and 17th centuries brussels tapestry hung on the walls of castles throughout europe the burgundian princes enhanced their political prestige with economic growth and artistic splendour these great dukes of the west were effectively sovereigns with domains extending from the zuiderzee to the somme the urban and other textile industries which had developed in the belgian territories since the 12th century became the economic center of northwestern europe the pragmatic sanction of 1549 issued by holy roman emperor charles v established the so called seventeen provinces as an entity on its own apart from the empire and from france this comprised all of belgium present day northeastern france present day luxembourg and present day netherlands except for the lands of the prince bishop of liège in brussels on 25 october 1555 charles v abdicated belgica regia to his son who in january 1556 assumed the throne of spain as philip ii dutch revolt and 80 years war edit main article dutch revolt see also dunkirkers the sack of antwerp in 1576 in which 17 000 people died 20 siege and capture of tournai 1581 the northern part of belgica regia comprising seven provinces and eventually forming the dutch republic became increasingly protestant specifically calvinist while the larger part comprising the ten southern provinces remained primarily catholic this schism and other cultural differences which had been present since ancient times launched the union of atrecht in the belgian regions later followed by the union of utrecht in the northern regions when philip ii ascended the spanish throne he tried to abolish all protestantism portions of belgica regia revolted eventually resulting in the eighty years war 1568 1648 between spain and the dutch republic 21 the horrors of this war massacres religious violence mutinies were precursors to the thirty years war 1618 1648 with which it would merge after the iconoclastic fury of 1566 spanish authorities were able to largely gain control of the low countries the most notable event of this period was the battle of oosterweel in which spanish forces destroyed an army of dutch calvinists king philip ii sent in fernando álvarez de toledo 3rd duke of alba as governor general of the spanish netherlands from 1567 to 1573 alba established a special court called the council of troubles nicknamed the council of blood the blood council s reign of terror saw it condemn thousands of people to death without due process and drive the nobles into exile while seizing their property alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18 600 persons in the netherlands in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war many of them women and children 8 000 persons were burned or hanged in one year and alba s flemish victims totalled at least 50 000 22 the dutch revolt spread to the south in the mid 1570s after the army of flanders mutinied for lack of pay and went on the rampage in several cities at the battle of gembloux on january 31 1578 the dutch were followed by don juan of austria who sent forward a picked force that attacked the rearguard and dispersed it and then falling suddenly upon the main body utterly routed it killing at least 10 000 rebels 23 don juan of austria died on october 1 1578 and was succeeded by alexander farnese duke of parma with the arrival of large numbers of troops from spain farnese began a campaign of reconquest in the south 24 he took advantage of the divisions in the ranks of his opponents between the dutch speaking flemish and the walloon speaking south to foment growing discord 25 by doing so he was able to bring back the walloon provinces to an allegiance to the king by the treaty of arras in 1579 he secured the support of the malcontents as the catholic nobles of the south were styled the seven northern provinces controlled by calvinists responded with the union of utrecht where they resolved to stick together to fight spain farnese secured his base in hainaut and artois then moved against brabant and flanders he captured many rebel towns in the south 26 maastricht 1579 tournai 1581 oudenaarde 1582 dunkirk 1583 bruges 1584 and ghent 1584 25 on august 17 1585 farnese laid siege to antwerp antwerp was one of the richest cities in northern europe and a rebel stronghold ever since spanish and walloon troops sacked it in 1576 the city was open to the sea strongly fortified and well defended under the leadership of marnix van st aldegonde engineer sebastian baroccio cut off all access to the sea by constructing a bridge of boats across the scheldt the dutch sailed fireships called hellburners m against the bridge and blew up a 200 foot long span and killed 800 spaniards the besiegers repaired the damage however and pressed the investment the city surrendered in 1585 as 60 000 antwerp citizens 60 of the pre siege population fled north 25 brussels mechelen and geertruidenberg fell the same year farnese s strategy was to offer generous terms for surrender there would be no massacres or looting historic urban privileges were retained there was a full pardon and amnesty return to the catholic church would be gradual 25 catholic refugees from the north regrouped in cologne and douai and developed a more militant tridentine identity they became the mobilising forces of a popular counter reformation in the south thereby facilitating the eventual emergence of the state of belgium 27 in 1601 the spanish besieged ostend producing more than 100 000 casualties before ostend finally fell in 1604 while the former northern part of belgica regia the seven united provinces gained independence southern belgica regia remained under the rule of spain 1556 1713 the southern part spoke various romance languages and the northern part used dutch yet court accounts were kept in spanish 17th and 18th centuries edit further information southern netherlands during the 17th century antwerp continued to be blockaded by the dutch but became a major european center for industry and art the brueghels peter paul rubens and van dyck s baroque paintings were created during this period wars between france and the dutch republic edit after the franco spanish war 1635 1659 spain shifted most of its troops out of belgium to iberia from 1659 madrid increasingly relied on the aid of allied armies to restrain french ambitions to annex the spanish netherlands 28 under louis xiv 1643 1715 france pursued an expansionist policy france frequently held control of territories in the southern netherlands confronted by various opponents including the netherlands and austria there was the war of devolution 1667 1668 the franco dutch war 1672 1678 the war of the reunions 1683 1684 and the nine years war 1688 1697 these were then followed by the war of the spanish succession 1701 1714 much of which was fought on belgian soil after the victory of austria and its allies under the 1714 treaty of rastatt the belgian and present day luxembourg territories except the lands under the lordship of the prince bishop of liège were transferred to the austrian habsburgs thus forming the austrian netherlands 1714 1797 29 brabant revolution edit the brabant revolution of 1789 1790 also known as the belgian revolution of 1789 1790 overlapped with the french revolution and called for independence from austrian rule brabant rebels under the command of jean andré van der mersch defeated the austrians at the battle of turnhout and founded the united states of belgium together with the prince bishopric of liège the new state was beset by factionalism between the radical vonckists led by jan frans vonck and the more conservative statists of henri van der noot businessmen with widescale operations generally supported the statists while the vonckists attracted small business and members of the trade guilds they called for independence from austria but were conservative in social and religious questions 30 by november 1790 the revolt had been crushed and the habsburg monarchy had returned to power 31 french control edit the battle of fleurus which led to the french conquest of the austrian netherlands following the campaigns of 1794 of the french revolutionary wars belgium austriacum was invaded and annexed by france in 1795 ending habsburg rule southern netherlands and the territory of liège was divided into nine united départements and became an integral part of france the prince bishopric of liège was dissolved and divided over the départements meuse inférieure and ourte the holy roman emperor confirmed the loss of southern netherlands by the treaty of campo formio in 1797 new rulers were sent in by paris belgian men were drafted into the french wars and heavily taxed resistance was strong in every sector as belgian nationalism emerged to oppose french rule the french legal system however was adopted with its equal legal rights and abolition of class distinctions belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit but it was not at all popular 32 until the establishment of the consulate in 1799 catholics were heavily repressed by the french the first university of leuven was closed in 1797 and churches were plundered during this early period of the french rule the belgian economy was completely paralyzed as taxes had to be paid in gold and silver coin while goods bought by the french were paid for with worthless assignats during this period of systematic exploitation about 800 000 belgians fled the southern netherlands 33 the french occupation of belgium le...
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