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by a group of chinese linguists including zhou youguang in the 1950s other well known systems include wade giles beijing mandarin and yale romanization beijing mandarin and cantonese there are many uses for chinese romanization most broadly it is used to provide a useful way for foreigners who are not skilled at recognizing chinese script to read and recognize chinese it can also be helpful for clarifying pronunciation among chinese speakers who speak mutually unintelligible chinese dialects romanization facilitates entering characters on standard keyboards chinese dictionaries have complex and competing sorting rules for characters romanization systems simplify the problem by listing characters in their latin form alphabetically background edit the indian sanskrit grammarians who went to china two thousand years ago to work on the translation of buddhist scriptures into chinese and the transcription of buddhist terms into chinese discovered the initial sound final sound and suprasegmental tone structure of spoken chinese syllables citation needed this understanding is reflected in the precise fanqie system and is the core principle of all modern systems while the fanqie system was ideal for indicating the conventional pronunciation of single isolated characters in written classical chinese literature it was unworkable for the pronunciation of essentially polysyllabic colloquial spoken chinese dialects such as mandarin citation needed aside from syllable structure it is also necessary to indicate tones in chinese romanization tones distinguish the definition of all morphemes in chinese and the definition of a word is often ambiguous in the absence of tones certain systems such as wade giles indicate tone with a number following the syllable ma 1 ma 2 ma 3 ma 4 others like pinyin indicate the tone with diacritics mā má mǎ mà still the system of gwoyeu romatzyh national romanization bypasses the issue of introducing non letter symbols by changing the letters within the syllable as in mha ma maa mah each of which contains the same vowel but a different tone uses edit non chinese edit teaching spoken and written chinese to foreigners making the actual pronunciation conventions of spoken chinese intelligible to non chinese speaking students especially those with no experience of a tonal language making the syntactic structure of chinese intelligible to those only familiar with latin grammar transcribing the citation pronunciation of specific chinese characters according to the pronunciation conventions of a specific european language to allow the insertion of that chinese pronunciation into a western text allowing instant communication in colloquial chinese between chinese and non chinese speakers via a phrase book chinese edit identifying the specific pronunciation of a character within a specific context a e g 行 as xíng to walk behaviour conduct or háng a store recitation of chinese text in one chinese variety by literate speakers of another mutually unintelligible one e g mandarin and cantonese learning classical or modern chinese use with a standard qwerty or dvorak keyboard replacing chinese characters to bring functional literacy to illiterate chinese speakers book indexing dictionary entry sorting and cataloguing in general posters and slogans in and around chinese schools often have each character annotated with its standard chinese reading in pinyin non chinese systems edit the wade wade giles and postal systems still appear in the european literature but generally only within a passage cited from an earlier work most european language texts use the chinese hanyu pinyin system usually without tone marks since 1979 as it was adopted by the people s republic of china b missionary systems edit a 17th century european map using the then typical transcription of chinese place names note the systematic use of x where pinyin has sh si where pinyin has xi and qu stylized qv where pinyin uses gu a taiwanese passport with the name of the bearer lin mei hua romanized for international intelligibility the first consistent system for transcribing chinese words in latin alphabet is thought to have been designed in 1583 1588 by matteo ricci and michele ruggieri for their portuguese chinese dictionary the first ever european chinese dictionary the manuscript was misplaced in the jesuit archives in rome and not re discovered until 1934 the dictionary was finally published in 2001 2 3 during the winter of 1598 ricci with the help of his jesuit colleague lazzaro cattaneo 1560 1640 compiled a chinese portuguese dictionary as well in which tones of the romanized chinese syllables were indicated with diacritical marks this work has also been lost but not rediscovered 2 cattaneo s system with its accounting for the tones was not lost however it was used e g by michał boym and his two chinese assistants in the first publication of the original and romanized text of the xi an stele which appeared in china illustrata 1667 an encyclopedic scope work compiled by athanasius kircher 4 in 1626 the jesuit missionary nicolas trigault devised a romanization system in his xiru ermu zi 西儒耳目资 西儒耳目資 xīrú ěrmù zī aid to the eyes and ears of western literati 5 in the 1670 portuguese language vocabulario da lingoa mandarina the dominican missionary francisco varo expanded on trigault s system his spanish language vocabulario de la lengua mandarina was published in 1682 and his arte de la lengua mandarina published in 1703 is the earliest known published chinese grammar 6 later on many linguistically comprehensive systems were made by the protestants such as that used for robert morrison s dictionary and the legge romanization in their missionary activities they had contact with many languages in southeast asia and they created systems that could be used consistently across all of the languages with which they were concerned citation needed a similar effort for a fully alphabetic system would be made by missionaries working among illiterate overseas chinese in southeast asia who could speak only a local dialect of chinese during the opium war of 1839 42 the rev samuel dyer of penang in collaboration with the rev john stronach published a work which undertook to dispense with chinese characters in favor of a phonetic alphabet 7 wade giles edit main article wade giles the first system to be widely accepted was the 1859 system of the british diplomat thomas wade c revised and improved by herbert giles into the 1892 wade giles 威翟式拼音 wēizháishì pīnyīn system apart from the correction of a number of ambiguities and inconsistencies within the wade system the innovation of the wade giles system was that it also indicated tones the wade giles system used the spiritus asper for aspirated consonants diacritical marks to mark some vowels and superscript digits to indicate the four tones french efeo system edit main article efeo chinese transcription the system devised in 1902 by séraphin couvreur of the école française d extrême orient was used in most of the french speaking world to transliterate chinese until the middle of the 20th century then gradually replaced by hanyu pinyin lessing othmer edit main article lessing othmer postal romanization edit main article chinese postal romanization postal romanization standardized in 1906 combined traditional spellings local dialect and nanking syllabary nanking syllabary is one of various romanization systems given in a popular chinese english dictionary by herbert giles it is based on nanjing pronunciation the french administered the post office at this time the system resembles traditional romanizations used in france many of these traditional spellings were created by french missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries when nanjing dialect was china s standard postal romanization was used only for place names barnett chao edit main article barnett chao romanisation meyer wempe edit main article meyer wempe yale system edit main articles yale romanization of cantonese and yale romanization of mandarin the yale romanization system was created at yale university during world war ii to facilitate communication between american military personnel and their chinese counterparts it uses a more regular spelling of mandarin phonemes than other systems of its day d this system was used for a long time because it was used for phrase books and part of the yale system of teaching chinese the yale system taught mandarin using spoken colloquial chinese patterns the yale system of mandarin has since been superseded by the chinese hanyu pinyin system chinese systems edit new culture movement background aftermath of the 1911 revolution second revolution coronation of yuan shikai national protection war manchu restoration constitutional protection movement warlord era eastward spread of western learning scientific revolution boxer indemnity scholarship french revolution russian revolution may fourth movement ideologies democracy science scientism anti confucianism social darwinism anarchism modernism liberalism socialism communism new humanism practice westernization east west cultural debate total westernization democratization simplification of chinese characters romanization of chinese languages writing with vernacular chinese national language movement translation of foreign literature sorting out national heritages feminist movement education reforms schools of thought doubting antiquity school xueheng school chinese communist party creation society new confucianism crescent moon society league of left wing writers major publications new youth the critical review a madman s diary the tiger notable people ba jin chen duxiu guo moruo hu shih lao she li dazhao lu xun mao dun qian xuantong shen congwen yu dafu zhu ziqing kang youwei v t e qieyin xinzi edit the first modern indigenous chinese romanization system the qieyin xinzi 切音新字 new phonetic alphabet was developed in 1892 by lu zhuangzhang 1854 1928 it was used to write the sounds of the xiamen dialect of southern min 8 some people also invented other phoneme systems 9 10 11 gwoyeu romatzyh edit the four tones of guo as written in characters and gwoyeu romatzyh note the spelling differences highlighted in red for each tone main article gwoyeu romatzyh in 1923 the kuomintang ministry of education instituted a national language unification commission which in turn formed an eleven member romanization unit the political circumstances of the time prevented any positive outcome from the formation of this unit 12 a new voluntary working subcommittee was independently formed by a group of five scholars who strongly advocated romanization the committee which met twenty two times over a twelve month period 1925 1926 consisted of zhao yuanren lin yutang qian xuantong li jinxi 黎錦熙 and one wang yi 13 they developed the gwoyeu romatzyh 國語羅馬字 guóyǔ luómǎzì national language romanization system proclaimed on 26 september 1928 the most distinctive aspect of this new system was that rather than relying upon marks or numbers it indicated the tonal variations of the root syllable by a systematic variation within the spelling of the syllable itself the entire system could be written with a standard qwerty keyboard the call to abolish the written characters in favor of a romanized alphabet reached a peak around 1923 as almost all of the designers of gwoyeu romatzyh were ardent supporters of this radical view it is only natural that aside from serving the immediate auxiliary role of sound annotation etc their scheme was designed in such a way that it would be capable of serving all functions expected of a bona fide writing system and supersede the written chinese characters in due course 14 despite the fact that it was created to eventually replace chinese characters and that it was constructed by linguists gwoyeu romatzyh was never extensively used for any purpose other than delivering the pronunciation of specific chinese characters in dictionaries e the complexity of its tonal system was such that it was never popular f latinxua sin wenz edit main article latinxua sin wenz work towards designing latinxua sin wenz began in moscow as early as 1928 when the soviet scientific research institute on china sought to create a means through which the large chinese population living in the far east of the soviet union could be made literate facilitating their further education from the very outset it was intended that the latinxua sin wenz system once established would supersede the chinese characters 17 the latin alphabet was chosen over the cyrillic alphabet because the former was thought to better serve their purposes 18 unlike gwoyeu romatzyh with its complex spelling rules to indicate tones latinxua sin wenz does not indicate tones at all while gr could in principle write many different tonal systems it had been pegged to the national standard language also promoted by the republican government while latinxua sin wenz was simply adapted to create new systems fit for various varieties of chinese varieties 19 the eminent moscow based chinese scholar qu qiubai 1899 1935 and the russian linguist v s kolokolov 1896 1979 devised a prototype romanization in 1929 in 1931 a coordinated effort between the soviet sinologists b m alekseev a a dragunov and a g shprintsin with the chinese scholars qu qiubai wu yuzhang lin boqu 林伯渠 xiao san wang xiangbao and xu teli based in moscow established latinxua sin wenz the system was supported by a number of chinese intellectuals such as guo moruo and lu xun and trials were conducted among 100 000 chinese immigrant workers for about four years g and later from 1940 to 1942 in the communist controlled regions of shaanxi gansu and ningxia 20 the roc government meanwhile felt compelled to ban its use between 1936 and 1938 in november 1949 the railways in northeastern china adopted latinxua sin wenz for all telecommunications 21 for a time the system was very important in spreading literacy in northern china and more than 300 publications totaling 500 000 issues were printed in latinxua sin wenz 17 ultimately promotion of the system ceased because of its proposed target of superseding logographic chinese characters altogether which was deemed too radical in 1944 the latinization movement was officially curtailed in the communist controlled areas of china on the pretext that there were insufficient trained cadres capable of teaching the system it is more likely that as the communists prepared to take power in a much wider territory they had second thoughts about the rhetoric that surrounded the latinization movement in order to obtain the maximum popular support they withdrew support from a movement that deeply offended many supporters of the traditional writing system 22 in 2002 zhou youguang claimed that joseph stalin persuaded mao zedong against the complete romanization of chinese during mao s visit to moscow in december 1949 23 hanyu pinyin edit main article pinyin in octo...
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