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so history of structural engineering engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence the earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 bc in ancient egypt the indus valley civilization and mesopotamia ancient iraq when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence creating a need for the construction of shelter during this time transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing leonhard euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of columns until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture and the terms engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation and often used interchangeably 9 the constructions of pyramids in egypt c 2700 2500 bc constitute some of the first instances of large structure constructions in history other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the qanat water management system in modern day iran the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres 44 mi 10 the parthenon by iktinos in ancient greece 447 438 bc the appian way by roman engineers c 312 bc the great wall of china by general meng t ien under orders from ch in emperor shih huang ti c 220 bc 11 and the stupas constructed in ancient sri lanka like the jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in anuradhapura the romans developed civil structures throughout their empire including especially aqueducts insulae harbors bridges dams and roads a roman aqueduct built c 19 bc pont du gard france chichen itza was a large pre columbian city in mexico built by the maya people of the post classic the northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 metres 130 ft away to a rejollada a former cenote in the 18th century the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering 4 in 1747 the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering the école nationale des ponts et chaussées was established in france and more examples followed in other european countries like spain escuela técnica superior de ingenieros de caminos canales y puertos 12 the first self proclaimed civil engineer was john smeaton who constructed the eddystone lighthouse 3 11 in 1771 smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the smeatonian society of civil engineers a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner though there was evidence of some technical meetings it was little more than a social society john smeaton the father of civil engineering in 1818 the institution of civil engineers was founded in london 13 and in 1820 the eminent engineer thomas telford became its first president the institution received a royal charter in 1828 formally recognising civil engineering as a profession its charter defined civil engineering as the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man as the means of production and of traffic in states both for external and internal trade as applied in the construction of roads bridges aqueducts canals river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange and in the construction of ports harbours moles breakwaters and lighthouses and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce and in the construction and application of machinery and in the drainage of cities and towns 14 education edit the first private college to teach civil engineering in the united states was norwich university founded in 1819 by captain alden partridge 15 the first degree in civil engineering in the united states was awarded by rensselaer polytechnic institute in 1835 16 17 the first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by cornell university to nora stanton blatch in 1905 18 in the uk during the early 19th century the division between civil engineering and military engineering served by the royal military academy woolwich coupled with the demands of the industrial revolution spawned new engineering education initiatives the class of civil engineering and mining was founded at king s college london in 1838 mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers the private college for civil engineers in putney was established in 1839 and the uk s first chair of engineering was established at the university of glasgow in 1840 education edit main article civil engineer civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering the length of study is three to five years and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology or a bachelor of engineering the curriculum generally includes classes in physics mathematics project management design and specific topics in civil engineering after taking basic courses in most sub disciplines of civil engineering they move on to specialize in one or more sub disciplines at advanced levels while an undergraduate degree beng bsc normally provides successful students with industry accredited qualifications some academic institutions offer post graduate degrees meng msc which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest 19 surveying students with professor at the helsinki university of technology in the late 19th century practicing engineers edit in most countries a bachelor s degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and a professional body certifies the degree program after completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified once certified the engineer is designated as a professional engineer in the united states canada and south africa a chartered engineer in most commonwealth countries a chartered professional engineer in australia and new zealand or a european engineer in most countries of the european union there are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders the benefits of certification vary depending upon location for example in the united states and canada only a licensed professional engineer may prepare sign and seal and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval or seal engineering work for public and private clients 20 this requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the engineers act in quebec 21 no such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the united kingdom in australia state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of queensland almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by 22 engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties in cases where an engineer s work fails they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence and in extreme cases criminal charges 23 an engineer s work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law sub disciplines edit the akashi kaikyō bridge in japan currently the world s second longest suspension span there are a number of sub disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering general civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading drainage pavement water supply sewer service dams electric and communications supply general civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another site engineers spend time visiting project sites meeting with stakeholders and preparing construction plans civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering structural engineering environmental engineering transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential commercial industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction coastal engineering edit main articles coastal engineering and coastal management oosterscheldekering a storm surge barrier in the netherlands coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas in some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion respectively coastal defense is the more traditional term but coastal management has become popular as well construction engineering edit main article construction engineering construction engineering involves planning and execution transportation of materials and site development based on hydraulic environmental structural and geotechnical engineering as construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms construction engineers often engage in more business like transactions such as drafting and reviewing contracts analyze and evaluating logistical operations and monitoring supply prices image shows civil engineers working planning on a site earthquake engineering edit main article earthquake engineering earthquake crash testing performed by engineers to determine the liability of structures earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures earthquake engineering is a sub discipline of structural engineering the main objectives of earthquake engineering are 24 to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes and design construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes environmental engineering edit main article environmental engineering creek contaminated with water pollution environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical biological or thermal wastes purification of water and air and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport water purification waste water treatment air pollution solid waste treatment recycling and hazardous waste management environmental engineers administer pollution reduction green engineering and industrial ecology environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions forensic engineering edit main article forensic engineering forensic engineering is the investigation of materials products structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended causing personal injury or damage to property the consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability the field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery the subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases although it may be of use in criminal law cases generally the purpose of a forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident it can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims especially patents geotechnical engineering edit main article geotechnical engineering a phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air soil water and voids geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems knowledge from the field of soil science materials science mechanics and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations retaining walls and other structures environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo environmental engineering 25 26 identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering but unlike steel or concrete the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation furthermore soil exhibits nonlinear stress dependent strength stiffness and dilatancy volume change associated with application of shear stress making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult 25 geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists geological engineering professionals and soil scientists 27 materials science and engineering edit main article materials science materials science is closely related to civil engineering it studies fundamental characteristics of materials and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete strong metals such as aluminum and steel and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate pmma and carbon fibers materials engineering involves protection and prevention paints and finishes alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties it incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry with recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research it is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis site development and planning edit see also land development and urban planning plan draft of proposed mixed use site site development also known as site planning is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges 28 structural engineering edit main article structural engineering burj khalifa animation of construction process shallow foundation construction example structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings bridges towers flyovers overpasses tunnels off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea aerostructure and other structures this involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads the loads can be self weight of the structures other dead load live loads moving wheel load wind load earthquake load load from temperature change etc the structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for to be serviceable due to the nature of some loading conditions sub disciplines within structural engineering have emerged including wind engi...
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