Meta tags:
Headings (most frequently used words):
and, life, works, robert, hooke, contents, science, architecture, likenesses, commemorations, explanatory, notes, see, also, references, external, links, early, oxford, royal, society, personality, relationships, health, death, astronomy, mechanics, gravitation, horology, microscopy, palaeontology, geology, memory, other, citations, sources, further, reading,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (596), hooke (314), and (298), his (116), was (105), robert (101), that (76), 2003 (73), from (72), with (70), #society (69), for (69), london (62), royal (59), newton (56), inwood (49), gribbin (46), which (43), had (42), but (38), john (31), university (29), also (29), history (28), doi (28), not (28), this (27), first (25), boyle (24), life (24), about (23), according (23), isbn (22), oxford (22), him (22), portrait (22), other (21), time (21), jardine (21), micrographia (21), works (21), its (21), some (21), 2017 (21), have (21), been (21), law (20), new (20), motion (20), work (19), would (19), english (18), waller (18), lectures (18), isaac (17), press (17), great (17), experiments (17), who (17), articles (16), between (16), michael (16), made (16), march (15), were (15), 978 (15), more (15), oclc (15), than (15), library (14), january (14), 1703 (14), retrieved (14), charles (14), science (14), 1665 (14), such (14), wikipedia (13), natural (13), scientific (13), william (13), 1679 (13), 1098 (13), notes (13), has (13), published (13), one (13), 1960 (13), death (13), own (13), may (12), use (12), gresham (12), century (12), jstor (12), records (12), wren (12), after (12), fire (12), these (12), spring (12), did (12), church (12), said (12), page (11), links (11), college (11), 1635 (11), bodies (11), england (11), pmid (11), rsnr (11), city (11), 1705 (11), turnbull (11), most (11), earth (11), aubrey (11), used (11), original (10), thomas (10), cooper (10), book (10), 2006 (10), hall (10), now (10), february (10), memory (10), found (10), observations (10), described (10), air (10), balance (10), gravitation (10), inverse (10), square (10), age (9), optical (9), huygens (9), richard (9), diary (9), discovered (9), s2cid (9), 1664 (9), many (9), 1976 (9), idea (9), are (9), griffing (9), distance (9), rather (9), all (8), written (8), astronomical (8), network (8), method (8), july (8), 1680 (8), two (8), books (8), christopher (8), early (8), vol (8), studies (8), microscopy (8), 2004 (8), potentia (8), restitutiva (8), model (8), espinasse (8), drake (8), both (8), view (7), different (7), british (7), enlightenment (7), isle (7), wight (7), scientists (7), philosophy (7), mary (7), december (7), principia (7), posthumous (7), document (7), 2005 (7), force (7), chapman (7), account (7), 2024 (7), pendulum (7), 1935 (7), will (7), health (7), microscope (7), 1996 (7), cell (7), 1898 (7), because (7), observed (7), wrote (7), cutler (7), years (7), known (7), philosophical (7), drawing (7), body (7), over (7), priority (7), containing (6), internet (6), project (6), long (6), people (6), list (6), henry (6), information (6), montagu (6), van (6), robinson (6), demonstrated (6), proportion (6), journal (6), 177 (6), surveyor (6), further (6), astronomy (6), cambridge (6), whittaker (6), read (6), curator (6), york (6), she (6), invention (6), morgan (6), 1677 (6), ogilby (6), physical (6), mathematical (6), given (6), being (6), much (6), mechanical (6), discovery (6), 1956 (6), biology (6), became (6), grace (6), what (6), although (6), calendar (6), proposed (6), when (6), head (6), others (6), biographer (6), went (6), could (6), designed (6), clock (6), developed (6), watch (6), gravity (6), their (6), toggle (5), search (5), text (5), using (5), commons (5), language (5), wikidata (5), french (5), 2014 (5), short (5), freshwater (5), 17th (5), national (5), telephone (5), communication (5), division (5), free (5), media (5), alexander (5), samuel (5), system (5), human (5), animal (5), dictionary (5), letter (5), 1672 (5), october (5), 1951 (5), 2008 (5), april (5), claim (5), physics (5), 2021 (5), evidence (5), beale (5), ward (5), lives (5), discourses (5), author (5), instruments (5), light (5), correspondence (5), singer (5), fossils (5), stephen (5), 2002 (5), november (5), building (5), centre (5), geology (5), too (5), 1678 (5), power (5), see (5), descriptions (5), 2001 (5), article (5), 135 (5), 149 (5), telescope (5), 138 (5), accuracy (5), things (5), writing (5), joint (5), window (5), 000 (5), today (5), any (5), improvement (5), difference (5), built (5), combustion (5), they (5), principle (5), died (5), professor (5), unknown (5), contemporaneous (5), while (5), only (5), enabled (5), assistant (5), 1674 (5), might (5), yet (5), celestial (5), attraction (5), move (5), club (5), contents (4), mobile (4), under (4), agree (4), same (4), open (4), without (4), wikisource (4), latin (4), description (4), school (4), instrument (4), data (4), telecommunications (4), line (4), video (4), leeuwenhoek (4), jean (4), lyell (4), letters (4), essay (4), unpublished (4), chicago (4), 175 (4), references (4), manuscript (4), lost (4), center (4), images (4), 1111 (4), art (4), 1994 (4), help (4), horology (4), printed (4), 1998 (4), part (4), surveys (4), eds (4), lisa (4), leonardo (4), 1950 (4), wilkins (4), planetary (4), mathematician (4), sir (4), etc (4), giving (4), macmillan (4), elements (4), 131 (4), philosopher (4), 540 (4), modern (4), brief (4), pepys (4), 1670 (4), here (4), map (4), principles (4), 2011 (4), changes (4), 1936 (4), before (4), several (4), willis (4), vacuum (4), out (4), halley (4), 239 (4), gest (4), motions (4), 123 (4), 101 (4), experiment (4), gregorian (4), 156 (4), 140 (4), 100 (4), considered (4), universal (4), jupiter (4), another (4), then (4), accurate (4), them (4), make (4), father (4), involved (4), 1662 (4), office (4), year (4), began (4), common (4), thus (4), annual (4), subject (4), large (4), named (4), moved (4), bishopsgate (4), likenesses (4), identified (4), appearance (4), very (4), ever (4), place (4), appointed (4), can (4), glass (4), way (4), nature (4), microscopic (4), despite (4), become (4), main (4), important (4), having (4), hide (4), sidebar (4), wikimedia (3), creative (3), 2026 (3), archive (3), gutenberg (3), link (3), incorporating (3), cite (3), grove (3), 1911 (3), britannica (3), reference (3), sources (3), dates (3), 2022 (3), pages (3), fellows (3), westminster (3), makers (3), org (3), states (3), telecommunication (3), wireless (3), television (3), radio (3), public (3), transmission (3), orbital (3), space (3), cable (3), pioneers (3), francis (3), paul (3), howard (3), revolution (3), telegraph (3), device (3), social (3), stewart (3), america (3), price (3), ashley (3), naturalists (3), von (3), coloration (3), origin (3), species (3), darwin (3), bernard (3), historia (3), jan (3), antonie (3), renaissance (3), aristotle (3), omitted (3), 1086 (3), isis (3), 1681 (3), minute (3), prof (3), archived (3), galileo (3), guardian (3), special (3), research (3), including (3), related (3), never (3), reciprocall (3), bibcode (3), 2020 (3), five (3), hunter (3), ltd (3), rebuilding (3), aftermath (3), three (3), allan (3), lecture (3), 137 (3), 153 (3), series (3), reading (3), wilson (3), 1989 (3), jmi (3), 1991 (3), 1686 (3), 169 (3), meetings (3), illustrated (3), inventions (3), 1687 (3), 1675 (3), 1948 (3), sullivan (3), 115 (3), planet (3), martin (3), rigaud (3), partington (3), oldenburg (3), better (3), family (3), manuel (3), attempt (3), causes (3), jensen (3), helmont (3), 263 (3), heat (3), engine (3), seventeenth (3), transactions (3), 173 (3), medicine (3), man (3), weather (3), 1673 (3), details (3), hintzman (3), pump (3), chamber (3), 1978 (3), 261 (3), 122 (3), birth (3), 171 (3), 158 (3), development (3), monument (3), 2009 (3), 2019 (3), museum (3), 1804 (3), laws (3), garnett (3), foundations (3), 119 (3), margaret (3), ellen (3), ideas (3), cohen (3), bscb (3), peter (3), berry (3), 221 (3), ball (3), 1696 (3), saturn (3), 431 (3), 297 (3), 150 (3), example (3), 109 (3), 200 (3), inflation (3), therefore (3), along (3), reveal (3), wheel (3), like (3), red (3), spot (3), hanging (3), plaque (3), structure (3), argued (3), each (3), four (3), degree (3), hook (3), kepler (3), respiration (3), contained (3), proper (3), following (3), master (3), whom (3), secretary (3), fellow (3), still (3), practice (3), shown (3), recorded (3), julian (3), born (3), act (3), figure (3), moon (3), match (3), 1710 (3), education (3), analysis (3), greer (3), helen (3), conjectured (3), proposal (3), source (3), person (3), crooked (3), thin (3), middle (3), face (3), little (3), below (3), claims (3), mentions (3), met (3), remains (3), scale (3), property (3), task (3), process (3), observation (3), central (3), shape (3), 1666 (3), writers (3), top (3), assumption (3), wood (3), led (3), living (3), believed (3), far (3), palaeontology (3), contains (3), concluded (3), 1663 (3), well (3), blood (3), precision (3), constant (3), among (3), christiaan (3), those (3), astronomer (3), there (3), fundamental (3), credit (3), acknowledged (3), credited (3), demonstrations (3), demonstration (3), continue (3), hypothesis (3), founded (3), simple (3), contemporaries (3), elasticity (3), demonstrate (3), 1660 (3), june (3), mechanics (3), discoveries (3), star (3), gamma (3), measurement (3), noted (3), relationships (3), personality (3), frs (3), career (3), tools (3), subsection (3), languages (2), table (2), statement (2), statistics (2), code (2), legal (2), contact (2), privacy (2), policy (2), available (2), additional (2), terms (2), apply (2), non (2), foundation (2), license (2), last (2), september (2), hidden (2), categories (2), biodiversity (2), heritage (2), librivox (2), cs1 (2), template (2), citation (2), biography (2), signature (2), good (2), associated (2), philosophers (2), physicists (2), architects (2), academics (2), astronomers (2), deaths (2), https (2), index (2), title (2), yale (2), artists (2), mathematics (2), poland (2), greece (2), netherlands (2), spain (2), italy (2), france (2), united (2), category (2), portal (2), europe (2), notable (2), equipment (2), computer (2), exchange (2), circuit (2), switching (2), fiber (2), alfred (2), sutton (2), brown (2), claude (2), johann (2), hopkins (2), gray (2), lee (2), daniel (2), davies (2), walter (2), bell (2), streaming (2), digital (2), cases (2), telegraphy (2), satellite (2), communications (2), phone (2), online (2), image (2), audio (2), iii (2), smith (2), hutton (2), swammerdam (2), court (2), humboldt (2), descartes (2), milton (2), collins (2), bacon (2), universality (2), rights (2), dark (2), counter (2), civil (2), topics (2), study (2), animals (2), hugh (2), ernst (2), naturalist (2), joseph (2), hooker (2), louis (2), birds (2), james (2), 19th (2), germain (2), plantarum (2), ray (2), herball (2), animalium (2), conrad (2), antiquity (2), pioneering (2), pair (2), exchanged (2), adams (2), 129 (2), 2010 (2), settled (2), post (2), searchable (2), collections (2), wikiquote (2), external (2), attractive (2), duplicate (2), 331 (2), american (2), pdf (2), 167 (2), gunther (2), burlington (2), vermont (2), ashgate (2), tercentennial (2), publishing (2), ground (2), streets (2), 1997 (2), 174 (2), 161 (2), 187 (2), proceedings (2), biological (2), andrade (2), 282 (2), whiteside (2), 0002 (2), 1740 (2), professors (2), geom (2), gresh (2), cutlerian (2), illustrious (2), sculptures (2), prefixt (2), employments (2), enumeration (2), contrivances (2), produced (2), vickery (2), edinburgh (2), speed (2), effects (2), reprint (2), 1959 (2), 1661 (2), syfret (2), 1938 (2), 1816 (2), schmadel (2), 3514 (2), 295 (2), 29925 (2), sample (2), rudwick (2), rousseaux (2), coullet (2), gilli (2), conical (2), analogues (2), 462 (2), 531 (2), soc (2), rosen (2), 2012 (2), world (2), steam (2), taylor (2), 1838 (2), historical (2), publication (2), pugliese (2), 2nd (2), company (2), folio (2), 1200 (2), connor (2), robertson (2), 2023 (2), nielsen (2), back (2), 1729 (2), andrew (2), nakajima (2), 1934 (2), 1941 (2), mcveigh (2), 2000 (2), chest (2), 1968 (2), 1832 (2), explain (2), former (2), surface (2), previously (2), 268 (2), 1179 (2), jenkins (2), institute (2), patent (2), newcomen (2), 151 (2), bulletin (2), genius (2), 1734 (2), making (2), collection (2), geographical (2), occasions (2), explaining (2), springing (2), tillotson (2), via (2), wellcome (2), anima (2), brutorum (2), physiological (2), magnifying (2), glasses (2), inquiries (2), thereupon (2), hirshfeld (2), alan (2), parallax (2), measure (2), harsch (2), august (2), 1671 (2), 867 (2), med (2), 281 (2), lawrence (2), comments (2), 114 (2), greated (2), music (2), gould (2), 1923 (2), marine (2), chronometer (2), gorvett (2), lab (2), recently (2), gase (2), popular (2), zoonomia (2), disease (2), boston (2), academic (2), compounding (2), gal (2), fulton (2), tan (2), globe (2), theory (2), evolution (2), davidson (2), 2015 (2), optics (2), daintith (2), gjertsen (2), 1999 (2), 1985 (2), norton (2), encyclopædia (2), chisholm (2), medal (2), 1992 (2), bowler (2), arthur (2), 1893 (2), atkin (2), andrarde (2), 1962 (2), faber (2), limited (2), aitken (2), binary (2), stars (2), 411 (2), 132 (2), 147 (2), 154 (2), 125 (2), 288 (2), 285 (2), 130 (2), 126 (2), 112 (2), 118 (2), 163 (2), 113 (2), 448 (2), 235 (2), 165 (2), 108 (2), 144 (2), 179 (2), 133 (2), 257 (2), 159 (2), 145 (2), 106 (2), 104 (2), based (2), 143 (2), start (2), questioned (2), nothing (2), biblical (2), 141 (2), 116 (2), citations (2), mechanism (2), rotation (2), shadowgraph (2), generate (2), sash (2), devices (2), reticle (2), uses (2), needed (2), atom (2), harmonic (2), curve (2), formed (2), chain (2), catenary (2), minutes (2), longitude (2), latitude (2), determined (2), serve (2), une (2), vérité (2), mirror (2), wind (2), gauge (2), plate (2), seem (2), support (2), called (2), know (2), oxygen (2), pabulum (2), vitae (2), kind (2), considers (2), likely (2), friends (2), separately (2), retail (2), subsequently (2), knowledge (2), say (2), widely (2), accepted (2), copy (2), churches (2), nominally (2), servitor (2), perform (2), record (2), 1648 (2), date (2), formally (2), 170 (2), deviation (2), grew (2), ten (2), days (2), detailed (2), explanatory (2), innys (2), includes (2), prove (2), martyn (2), paris (2), reply (2), considerations (2), auzout (2), des (2), recognise (2), mars (2), memorial (2), commemorations (2), associate (2), sitter (2), points (2), created (2), painting (2), buildings (2), included (2), her (2), lowther (2), president (2), barrow (2), painter (2), rita (2), produce (2), painted (2), relations (2), destroyed (2), edition (2), possible (2), include (2), scholar (2), 176 (2), baptist (2), connection (2), neither (2), despicable (2), heard (2), himself (2), till (2), frequent (2), turn (2), always (2), pale (2), eyes (2), grey (2), full (2), sharp (2), ingenious (2), whilst (2), moderate (2), height (2), length (2), wide (2), neglected (2), eie (2), survived (2), sometimes (2), attributed (2), myth (2), within (2), months (2), sat (2), exist (2), attention (2), fact (2), almost (2), land (2), compensation (2), paid (2), precise (2), production (2), specific (2), reconstruction (2), quickly (2), meant (2), rebuilt (2), closely (2), 1667 (2), helped (2), reports (2), generally (2), show (2), get (2), recommendation (2), council (2), keen (2), though (2), vibration (2), purpose (2), legacy (2), level (2), design (2), ideal (2), circular (2), cathedral (2), dome (2), spiral (2), lectureship (2), willen (2), magdalene (2), hospital (2), architecture (2), ran (2), nodal (2), patterns (2), generated (2), brass (2), resemblance (2), encoding (2), repetition (2), retrieval (2), forgetting (2), geologist (2), organic (2), conclude (2), objects (2), fossil (2), provided (2), reliable (2), extinct (2), through (2), geological (2), 1668 (2), engraving (2), component (2), describes (2), telescopes (2), earliest (2), coined (2), term (2), cells (2), hand (2), gold (2), scientist (2), increased (2), least (2), attached (2), regularity (2), keep (2), regularly (2), 134 (2), timekeeping (2), clocks (2), mechanisms (2), improve (2), experimenter (2), left (2), gravitational (2), clairaut (2), truth (2), denied (2), due (2), gave (2), matters (2), 1660s (2), reasons (2), direction (2), relation (2), presented (2), upon (2), supposition (2), distances (2), rule (2), wanted (2), how (2), falling (2), experimentally (2), continuing (2), towards (2), end (2), consequently (2), velocity (2), members (2), however (2), applies (2), provide (2), follow (2), self (2), 117 (2), attract (2), controversy (2), processes (2), anagram (2), name (2), extension (2), portable (2), centuries (2), nevertheless (2), achieve (2), allowed (2), refracting (2), conducted (2), investigate (2), craters (2), arietis (2), rings (2), pleiades (2), hours (2), italian (2), drawings (2), meteorologist (2), pressure (2), money (2), leaving (2), passed (2), cousin (2), since (2), later (2), increasing (2), sexual (2), relationship (2), niece (2), maker (2), often (2), took (2), largely (2), lived (2), reaction (2), geometry (2), income (2), scarcely (2), employed (2), gas (2), matter (2), particularly (2), taught (2), euclid (2), form (2), lifelong (2), christ (2), instruction (2), inferred (2), architect (2), polymath (2), upload (2), file (2), edit (2), norsk (2), bahasa (2), беларуская (2), log (2), create (2), donate (2), menu (2), add, topic, cookie, developers, conduct, safety, contacts, disclaimers, site, you, registered, trademark, profit, organization, inc, attribution, sharealike, rendered, parsoid, edited, utc, hebrew, bhl, volume, value, parameter, encyclopaedia, hcards, dmy, semi, protected, against, vandalism, catalogues, educated, inventors, anglicans, geologists, births, php, robert_hooke, oldid, 1374667756, lux, snac, idref, ddb, deutsche, biographie, structurae, trove, fid, illustrators, rkd, ulan, zbmath, genealogy, cinii, belgium, catalonia, israel, vatican, sweden, korea, chile, norway, czech, republic, japan, bnf, worldcat, fast, gnd, viaf, isni, international, authority, control, databases, outline, global, regulation, oceania, asia, antarctica, americas, south, north, africa, locations, usenet, toasternet, tanet, npl, janet, internet2, fidonet, cyclades, bitnet, arpanet, networks, wan, uucp, telex, switched, ngn, lan, isdn, ethernet, cellular, types, store, forward, protocol, concepts, angular, momentum, polarization, frequency, multiplexing, terminal, nodes, packet, bandwidth, topology, waves, molecular, optic, coaxial, vladimir, zworykin, wheatstone, watson, vail, camille, tissot, nikola, tesla, sumner, tainter, almon, strowger, shannon, philipp, reis, tivadar, puskás, stepanovich, popov, radia, perlman, grafton, jun, ichi, nishizawa, morse, antonio, meucci, metcalfe, guglielmo, marconi, innocenzo, manzetti, roberto, landell, hedy, lamarr, narinder, singh, kapany, kao, dawon, kahng, bob, kahn, gardiner, greene, hubbard, harold, erna, schneider, hoover, oliver, heaviside, elisha, forest, reginald, fessenden, philo, farnsworth, edison, amos, dolbear, davis, donald, yogen, dalal, chappe, vint, cerf, houser, brattain, bourseul, jagadish, chandra, bose, blake, tim, berners, emile, berliner, graham, bardeen, baran, logie, baird, mohamed, atalla, edwin, armstrong, nasir, ahmed, whistled, videotelephony, undersea, teletype, teleprinter, telautograph, smoke, signals, transistor, mosfet, semiconductor, phryctoria, semaphore, radiotelephone, prepaid, photophone, pager, smartphone, mass, hydraulic, heliographs, fax, electrical, edholm, drums, platform, dct, compression, protection, broadcasting, beacon, romanticism, paine, mason, madison, jefferson, franklin, villarroel, jovellanos, moratín, feijóo, montenegro, cadalso, aranda, mrazović, obradović, serbia, reid, playfair, mill, hutcheson, hume, ferguson, cullen, burns, burnett, boswell, blair, black, beattie, scotland, vorontsova, dashkova, radishchev, novikov, lomonosov, kheraskov, kantemir, fonvizin, catherine, russia, văcărescu, șincai, pann, micu, klein, maior, golescu, cantemir, budai, deleanu, romania, marquis, pombal, portugal, wybicki, staszic, śniadecki, poniatowski, niemcewicz, krasicki, konarski, kołłątaj, spinoza, nieuwentyt, meyer, mandeville, koerbagh, grotius, bekker, volta, vico, verri, pagano, genovesi, galvani, galiani, beccaria, toland, swift, burke, berkeley, ireland, rodríguez, francia, monteagudo, moreno, miranda, hidalgo, espejo, clavijero, bolívar, bello, belgrano, baquíjano, carrillo, artigas, hispanic, korais, kairis, feraios, farmakidis, wolff, wieland, weishaupt, thomasius, schiller, pufendorf, mendelssohn, lichtenberg, lessing, leibniz, kant, herder, goethe, germany, saussure, rousseau, prévost, burlamaqui, bonnet, abauzit, geneva, voltaire, turgot, sade, raynal, quesnay, pascal, morelly, montesquieu, meslier, maréchal, mably, leclerc, lavoisier, mettrie, jaucourt, holbach, helvétius, gouges, fontenelle, diderot, condorcet, condillac, châtelet, chamfort, beaumarchais, bayle, argenson, alembert, wollstonecraft, tindal, sidney, reynolds, priestley, pope, locke, johnson, harrington, godwin, gibbon, bentham, addison, swieten, zinzendorf, sonnenfels, austria, thinkers, utopianism, spanish, sapere, aude, reductionism, reason, rationalism, rationality, progressivism, objectivity, modernity, midlands, methodological, skepticism, liberté, égalité, fraternité, liberalism, individualism, humanism, haskalah, enlightened, absolutism, encyclopédistes, empiricism, democracy, deism, critical, thinking, classicism, liberties, capitalism, atheism, dealers, societies, parson, museums, shearwaters, ronald, lockley, dancing, bees, karl, frisch, aggression, konrad, lorenz, instinct, niko, tinbergen, adaptive, cott, concealing, kingdom, abbott, thayer, martinus, beijerinck, 20th, lydekker, kunstformen, der, natur, haeckel, dalton, jackson, asa, philip, gosse, agassiz, henri, fabre, anning, buckland, audubon, river, amazons, bates, malay, archipelago, russel, wallace, règne, georges, cuvier, ornithological, george, philosophie, zoologique, baptiste, lamarck, bewick, selborne, gilbert, white, lacépède, histoire, naturelle, comte, buffon, johan, christian, fabricius, banks, georg, steller, systema, naturae, carl, linnaeus, regnier, graaf, hans, sloane, derham, marcello, malpighi, generall, historie, plantes, gerard, avium, praecipuarum, turner, frederik, ruysch, gessner, leonhart, fuchs, valerius, cordus, andrea, cesalpino, hieronymus, bock, otto, brunfels, pinax, theatri, botanici, gaspard, bauhin, ulisse, aldrovandi, materia, medica, dioscorides, pliny, elder, natura, aelian, theophrastus, classical, trail, rowse, koyré, alexandre, 1952, 337, 13010921, 227384, 348155, 312, 1683, henderson, felicity, 2007, material, memorandum, guildhall, 1758, 20462618, 0173, 230, 14880332, 226559, 349309, 219, presentation, slides, transcript, dust, westfall, rice, database, belonged, annotated, bought, housed, kentucky, libraries, digitzed, linda, downloadable, ascii
Text of the page (random words):
his name to a library laboratory and lectures no will was found and the money passed to a cousin named elizabeth stephens 84 hooke was buried at st helen s church bishopsgate in the city of london 85 but the precise location of his grave is unknown science hooke s role at the royal society was to demonstrate experiments from his own methods or at the suggestion of members among his earliest demonstrations were discussions of the nature of air and the implosion of glass bubbles that had been sealed with enclosed hot air 57 he also demonstrated that a dog could be kept alive with its thorax opened provided air was pumped in and out of its lungs 86 l he noted the difference between venous blood and arterial blood and thus demonstrated that the pabulum vitae food of life m and flammae flames were the same thing 89 90 there were also experiments on gravity the falling of objects the weighing of bodies the measurement of barometric pressure at different heights and the movement of pendulums up to 200 ft 61 m long 89 his biographer margaret espinasse described him as england s first meteorologist in her description of his essay method for making a history of the weather 91 hooke specifies that a thermometer a hygrometer a wind gauge and a record sheet be used for proper weather records 92 n astronomy hooke noted the shadows a and b cast by both the globe and the rings on each other in this drawing of saturn drawings of the moon and the pleiades from hooke s micrographia in may 1664 using a 12 ft 3 7 m refracting telescope hooke observed the great red spot of jupiter for two hours as it moved across the planet s face in march 1665 he published his findings and from them the italian astronomer giovanni cassini calculated the rotation period of jupiter to be nine hours and fifty five minutes 93 one of the most challenging problems hooke investigated was the measurement of the distance from earth to a star other than the sun hooke selected the star gamma draconis and chose the method of parallax determination in 1669 after several months of observing hooke believed the desired result had been achieved it is now known his equipment was far too imprecise to obtain an accurate measurement 94 hooke s micrographia contains illustrations of the pleiades star cluster and lunar craters he conducted experiments to investigate the formation of these craters and concluded their existence meant the moon must have its own gravity a radical departure from the contemporaneous aristotelian celestial model 95 he also was an early observer of the rings of saturn 96 and discovered one of the first observed double stars gamma arietis a visual binary in 1664 97 to achieve these discoveries hooke needed better instruments than those that were available at the time accordingly he invented three new mechanisms the hooke joint a sophisticated universal joint that allowed his instruments to smoothly follow the apparent motion of the observed body the first clockwork drive to automate the process and a micrometer screw that allowed him to achieve a precision of ten seconds of arc 98 99 hooke was dissatisfied with refracting telescopes so he built the first practical gregorian telescope that used a silvered glass mirror 100 101 o mechanics further information hooke s law and simple harmonic motion in 1660 hooke discovered the law of elasticity that bears his name and describes the linear variation of tension with extension in an elastic spring hooke first described this discovery in an anagram ceiiinosssttuv whose solution he published in 1678 as ut tensio sic vis as the extension so the force 103 his work on elasticity culminated in his development of the balance spring or hairspring which for the first time enabled a portable timepiece a watch to keep time with reasonable accuracy a bitter dispute between hooke and christiaan huygens on the priority of this invention was to continue for centuries after the death of both but a note dated 23 june 1670 in the journals of the royal society 104 describing a demonstration of a balance controlled watch before the royal society may support hooke s claim to priority for the idea nevertheless it is huygens who is credited with building the first watch to use a balance spring 105 106 hooke s announcement of his law of elasticity using an anagram was a method scientists such as hooke huygens and galileo sometimes used to establish priority for a discovery without revealing details 107 hooke used mechanical analogues to understand fundamental processes such as the motion of a spherical pendulum and of a ball in a hollow cone to demonstrate central force due to gravity 108 and a hanging chain net with point loads to provide the optimum shape for a dome with heavy cross on top 109 despite continuing reports to the contrary 110 hooke did not influence thomas newcomen s invention of the steam engine this myth which originated in an article in the third edition of encyclopædia britannica has been found to be mistaken 111 gravitation further information newton hooke priority controversy for the inverse square law while many of hooke s contemporaries such as isaac newton believed in aether as a medium for transmitting attraction and repulsion between separated celestial bodies 112 113 hooke argued for an attracting principle of gravitation in micrographia 1665 114 in a communication to the royal society in 1666 115 he wrote i will explain a system of the world very different from any yet received it is founded on the following positions 1 that all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitation of their parts to their own proper centre but that they also mutually attract each other within their spheres of action 2 that all bodies having a simple motion will continue to move in a straight line unless continually deflected from it by some extraneous force causing them to describe a circle an ellipse or some other curve 3 that this attraction is so much the greater as the bodies are nearer as to the proportion in which those forces diminish by an increase of distance i own i have not discovered it hooke s 1674 gresham lecture an attempt to prove the motion of the earth by observations published 1679 said gravitation applies to all celestial bodies 116 and restated these three propositions 117 hooke s statements up to 1674 make no mention however that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions his model of gravitation was also not yet universal though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses 118 hooke did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration he stated in 1674 now what these several degrees of gravitational attraction are i have not yet experimentally verified indicating he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow and about his whole proposal he said this i only hint at present having my self many other things in hand which i would first compleat and therefore cannot so well attend it i e prosecuting this inquiry 117 in november 1679 hooke initiated a notable exchange of letters with newton that was published in 1960 119 hooke s ostensible purpose was to tell newton he hooke had been appointed to manage the royal society s correspondence 120 hooke therefore wanted to hear from members about their research or their views about the research of others hooke asked newton s opinions about various matters among other items hooke mentioned compounding the celestial motions of the planets of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body his hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse a new hypothesis from paris about planetary motions which he described at length efforts to carry out or improve national surveys and the difference of latitude between london and cambridge 121 newton s reply offered a fansy of my own about a terrestrial experiment rather than a proposal about celestial motions that might detect the earth s motion the experiment would use a body suspended in air and then dropped hooke wanted to discern how newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the earth s motion by its direction of deviation from the vertical but hooke went on hypothetically to consider how its motion could continue if the solid earth had not been in the way on a spiral path to the centre hooke disagreed with newton s idea of the body s continuing motion a further short correspondence developed towards the end of it writing on 6 january 1680 to newton hooke communicated his supposition that the attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the distance from the center reciprocall and consequently that the velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the attraction and consequently as kepler supposes reciprocall to the distance 122 hooke s inference about the velocity is incorrect 123 in 1686 when the first book of newton s principia was presented to the royal society hooke said he had given newton the notion of the rule of the decrease of gravity being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the center at the same time according to edmond halley s contemporaneous report hooke agreed the demonstration of the curves generated thereby was wholly newton s 124 according to a 2002 assessment of the early history of the inverse square law by the late 1660s the assumption of an inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons 125 in the 1660s newton had shown for planetary motion under a circular assumption force in the radial direction had an inverse square relation with distance from the centre 126 newton who in may 1686 was presented with hooke s claim to priority on the inverse square law denied he was to be credited as author of the idea giving reasons including the citation of prior work by others 127 newton also said that even if he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from hooke which newton said he had not he would still have some rights to it because of his mathematical developments and demonstrations these he said enabled observations to be relied upon as evidence of its accuracy while according to newton hooke without mathematical demonstrations and evidence in favour of the supposition could only guess it was approximately valid at great distances from the centre 128 newton accepted and acknowledged in all editions of his principia that hooke and others had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system newton acknowledged wren hooke and halley in this connection in his scholium to proposition 4 in book 1 129 in a letter to halley newton also acknowledged his correspondence with hooke in 1679 1680 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters but that did not mean according to newton hooke had told newton anything new or original newton wrote yet am i not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the ellipsis which inclined me to try it 130 whilst newton was primarily a pioneer in mathematical analysis and its applications and optical experimentation hooke was a creative experimenter of such great range who left some of his ideas such as those about gravitation undeveloped in 1759 decades after the deaths of both newton and hooke alexis clairaut mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies reviewed hooke s published work on gravitation according to stephen peter rigaud clairaut wrote the example of hooke and that of kepler serves to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated p 131 i bernard cohen said hooke s claim to the inverse square law has masked newton s far more fundamental debt to him the analysis of curvilinear orbital motion in asking for too much credit hooke effectively denied to himself the credit due him for a seminal idea 132 horology drawing by christiaan huygens of one of his first balance springs which is attached to a balance wheel hooke made important contributions to the science of timekeeping and was intimately involved in the advances of his time these included refinement of the pendulum as a better regulator for clocks increased precision of clock mechanisms and the use of the balance spring to improve the timekeeping of watches galileo had observed the regularity of a pendulum and huygens first incorporated it in a clock 133 in 1668 hooke demonstrated his new device to keep a pendulum swinging regularly in unsteady conditions 134 his invention of a tooth cutting machine enabled a substantial improvement in the accuracy and precision of timepieces 134 waller reported the invention was by hooke s death in constant use among clock makers 89 hooke announced he conceived a way to build a marine chronometer to determine longitude 135 q and with the help of boyle and others he attempted to patent it in the process hooke demonstrated a pocket watch of his own devising that was fitted with a coil spring attached to the arbour of the balance hooke s refusal to accept an escape clause in the proposed exclusive contract for the use of this idea resulted in its abandonment 135 r hooke developed the principle of the balance spring independently of huygens and at least five years beforehand 136 huygens published his own work in journal de scavans in february 1675 and built the first functioning watch to use a balance spring 137 microscopy main article micrographia in 1663 and 1664 hooke made his microscopic and some astronomic observations which he collated in micrographia in 1665 his book which describes observations with microscopes and telescopes as well as original work in biology contains the earliest recorded observation of a microorganism the microfungus mucor 13 14 hooke coined the term cell suggesting a resemblance between plant structures and honeycomb cells 138 the hand crafted leather and gold tooled microscope he designed and used to make the observations for micrographia which christopher cock made for him in london is on display at the national museum of health and medicine in maryland 7 hooke s work developed from that of henry power who published his microscopy work in experimental philosophy 1663 6 in turn the dutch scientist antonie van leeuwenhoek went on to develop increased magnification and so reveal protozoa blood cells and spermatozoa 139 140 micrographia also contains hooke s or perhaps boyle s and hooke s ideas on combustion hooke s experiments led him to conclude combustion involves a component of air a statement with which modern scientists would agree but that was not understood widely if at all in the seventeenth century he also concluded respiration and combustion involve a specific and limited component of air 141 according to partington i...
|
