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english as their sole working language despite most members not being countries with a majority of native english speakers while the eu allows member states to designate any of the national languages as an official language of the union in practice english is the main working language of eu organisations 123 english serves as the basis for the required controlled natural languages 124 seaspeak and airspeak used as international languages of seafaring 125 and aviation 126 english is the most frequently taught foreign language in the world 60 61 most people learning english do so for practical reasons as opposed to ideological ones 127 in eu countries english is the most widely spoken foreign language in 19 of the 25 member states where it is not an official language that is the countries other than ireland and malta in a 2012 official eurobarometer poll conducted when the uk was still a member of the eu 38 per cent of eu respondents outside the countries where english is an official language said they could speak english well enough to have a conversation in that language the next most commonly mentioned foreign language french which is the most widely known foreign language in the uk and ireland could be used in conversation by 12 per cent of respondents 128 the global influence of english has led to concerns about language death 129 and to claims of linguistic imperialism 130 and has provoked resistance to the spread of english however the number of speakers continues to increase because many people around the world believe that english provides them with better employment opportunities and an increased quality of life 131 working knowledge of english has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such as medicine 132 and computing though it formerly had parity with french and german in scientific research english now dominates the field 133 its importance in scientific publishing is such that over 80 per cent of scientific journal articles indexed by chemical abstracts in 1998 were written in english as were 90 per cent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 and 82 per cent of articles in humanities publications by 1995 134 as decolonisation proceeded throughout the british empire in the 1950s and 1960s former colonies often did not reject english but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies 57 58 135 for example english is one of the official languages of india many indians have shifted from associating the language with colonialism to associating it with economic progress 136 english is widely used in media and literature with india being the third largest publisher of english language books in the world after the us and the uk 137 however fewer than 5 per cent of the population speak english fluently with the country s native english speakers numbering in the low hundreds of thousands 138 139 in 2004 david crystal claimed that india had the largest population of people able to speak or understand english in the world 140 though most scholars estimate that the us remains home to a larger english speaking population 141 many english speakers in africa have become part of an afro saxon language community that unites africans from different countries 142 regarding its future development it is considered most likely that english will continue to function as a koiné language with a standard form that unifies speakers around the world 143 dialects accents and varieties dialectologists identify many english dialects which usually refer to regional varieties that differ from each other in terms of patterns of grammar vocabulary and pronunciation the pronunciation of particular areas distinguishes dialects as separate regional accents the major native dialects of english are often divided by linguists into two extremely general categories british english bre and north american english nae 144 britain and ireland an example of a man with a contemporary received pronunciation accent alain de botton an example of a man with a cockney accent danny baker an example of an essex man with a working class estuary english accent russell brand an example of a man with a west yorkshire accent damien hirst an example of a man with a contemporary liverpool accent john bishop an example of a man with a south wales accent rob brydon an example of a man with one of the many accents of scotland alex salmond an example of a man with a northern irish accent george best an example of a woman with one of the many accents of ireland mary robinson primary dialect regions in the united kingdom and ireland the fact that english has been spoken in england for 1 500 years explains why england has a great wealth of regional dialects 145 within the united kingdom received pronunciation rp an educated accent associated originally with south east england has been traditionally used as a broadcast standard and is considered the most prestigious of british accents the spread of rp also known as bbc english through the media has caused many traditional dialects of rural england to recede as youths adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of those from local dialects at the time of the 1950 61 survey of english dialects grammar and vocabulary differed across the country but a process of lexical attrition has led most of this variation to disappear 146 nonetheless this attrition has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar and vocabulary only 3 of the english population actually speak rp with the remainder speaking in regional accents and dialects with varying degrees of rp influence 147 there is also variability within rp particularly along class lines between upper and middle class rp speakers and between native rp speakers and those who adopt rp later in life 148 within britain there is also considerable variation along lines of social class some traits though exceedingly common are nonetheless considered non standard and associated with lower class speakers and identities an example of this is h dropping which was historically a feature of lower class london english particularly cockney and can now be heard in the local accents of most parts of england however it remains largely absent from broadcasting and among the upper crust of british society 149 english in england can be divided into four major dialect regions south east english south west english also known as west country english midlands english and northern english within each of these regions several local dialects exist within the northern region there is a division between the yorkshire dialects the geordie dialect spoken around newcastle in northumbria and the lancashire dialects which include the urban subdialects of manchester mancunian and liverpool scouse having been the centre of danish occupation during the viking invasions of england northern english dialects particularly the yorkshire dialect retain norse features not found in other english varieties 150 in the west midlands dialects such as black country yam yam and to a lesser extent birmingham brummie preserve archaic features from early modern and middle english retaining germanic elements such as specific grammatical structures and vocabulary 151 since the 15th century south east england varieties have centred on london which has been the centre from which dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects in london the cockney dialect was traditionally used by the lower classes and it was long a socially stigmatised variety the spread of cockney features across the south east led the media to talk of estuary english as a new dialect but the notion was criticised by many linguists on the grounds that london had been influencing neighbouring regions throughout history 152 153 154 traits that have spread from london in recent decades include the use of intrusive r drawing is pronounced drawring ˈdrɔːrɪŋ t glottalisation potter is pronounced with a glottal stop as po er ˈpɒʔə and th fronting or the pronunciation of th as f thanks pronounced fanks or v bother pronounced bover 155 scots is today considered a separate language from english but it has its origins in early northern middle english 156 and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources particularly scottish gaelic and old norse scots itself has a number of regional dialects in addition to scots scottish english comprises the varieties of standard english spoken in scotland most varieties are northern english accents with some influence from scots 157 in ireland various forms of english have been spoken following the norman invasion of the island during the 11th century in county wexford and the area surrounding dublin two extinct dialects known as forth and bargy and fingallian developed as offshoots from early middle english and were spoken until the 19th century modern irish english however has its roots in english colonisation in the 17th century today irish english is divided into ulster english the northern ireland dialect with strong influence from scots and various other dialects of ireland like scottish and most north american accents almost all irish accents preserve the rhoticity that has been lost in the dialects influenced by rp 19 158 north america an example of a midwestern american man with a general american accent emery emery an alabama woman with a contemporary southern american accent martha roby a man with a new york city accent chuck zito a man with a boston accent marty walsh an example of two men with aave accents the interviewer from georgia d j shockley and the interviewee from louisiana russell gage an ontario woman with a standard canadian accent margaret atwood percentage of americans aged 5 in the 50 states washington d c and puerto rico who speak english at home according to the 2016 2021 american community survey rhoticity dominates in north american english but the atlas of north american english found over 50 per cent non rhoticity with at least one local speaker in each us metropolitan area marked with a red dot and non rhotic aave pronunciations found primarily among african americans regardless of location standard canadian pacific northwest indigenous canadian quebec ottawa valley mte atlantic canadian lunenburg newfoundland due to the relatively strong degree of mixing mutual accommodation and koinéisation that occurred during the colonial period north american english has traditionally been perceived as relatively homogeneous at least in comparison with british dialects however modern scholars have strongly opposed this notion arguing that north american english shows a great deal of phonetic lexical and geographic variability this becomes all the more apparent considering social ethnolinguistic and regional varieties such as african american english chicano english cajun english or newfoundland english 159 american accent variation is increasing at the regional level and decreasing at the very local level 160 though most americans still speak within a phonological continuum of similar accents 161 known collectively as general american english ga with differences hardly noticed even among americans themselves including midland and western american english 162 163 164 canadian english varieties excepting those from atlantic canada and possibly quebec are generally considered to belong to the ga continuum although they often show raising of the vowels aɪ and aʊ before voiceless consonants and have distinct norms for writing and pronunciation as well 165 atlantic canadian english notably distinct from standard canadian english 166 comprises maritime english and newfoundland english it was influenced mostly by british and irish english as well as irish scottish gaelic and acadian french 167 in most american and canadian english dialects rhoticity or r fullness is dominant with non rhoticity or r dropping being associated with lower prestige and social class especially since the end of world war ii this contrasts with the situation in england where non rhoticity has become the standard 168 varieties beyond ga which have developed distinct sound systems include the southern american english new york city english eastern new england english and african american vernacular english aave groups all of which are historically non rhotic save a few varieties of southern american in southern american english the most populous grouping outside ga 169 rhoticity now strongly prevails replacing the region s historical non rhotic prestige 170 171 172 southern accents are colloquially described as a drawl or twang 173 being recognised most readily by the southern vowel shift initiated by glide deleting in the aɪ vowel e g pronouncing spy almost like spa the southern breaking of several front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syllables e g pronouncing the word press almost like pray us 174 the pin pen merger and other distinctive phonological grammatical and lexical features many of which are actually recent developments of the 19th century or later 175 spoken primarily by working and middle class african americans african american vernacular english aave is largely non rhotic and likely originated among enslaved africans and african americans influenced primarily by the non standard older southern dialects a minority of linguists 176 contrarily propose that aave mostly traces back to african languages spoken by the slaves who had to develop a pidgin or english based creole to communicate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins 177 aave s important commonalities with southern accents suggest it developed into a highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or early 20th century aave is commonly stigmatised in north america as a form of broken or uneducated english as are white southern accents but linguists today recognise both as fully developed varieties of english with their own norms shared by large speech communities 178 179 australia and new zealand an example of a man with a general australian accent an example of a south australian woman with a broad australian accent julia gillard an example of a queensland man with a cultivated australian accent geoffrey rush an example of a woman with a new zealand accent eleanor catton an example of a man with a new zealand accent john key since 1788 english has been spoken in oceania and australian english has developed as the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of the australian continent its standard accent being general australian the english of neighbouring new zealand has to a lesser degree become an influential standard variety of the language 180 australian and new zealand english are each other s closest relatives with few differentiating characteristics followed by south african english and the english of south east england all of which have similarly non rhotic accents aside from some accents in the south island of new ...
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