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fter a pause of 200 to 300 years a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of new zealand 30 31 32 early settlements the first people to reach new zealand were polynesians in oceangoing waka who are believed to have arrived in several waves between about 1280 and 1350 according to most māori oral traditions the islands were first discovered by the semi legendary explorer kupe while in pursuit of a giant octopus 33 these traditions hold that kupe was followed by a great fleet of settlers who set out from hawaiki in eastern polynesia around 1350 34 the existence of a single great fleet that settled new zealand has since been superseded by the belief that the majority of settlement was a planned and deliberate event that occurred over several decades 35 36 37 38 39 the exact date of this settlement is unclear with recent sources favouring settlement in the 14th century while mitochondrial dna variability within māori populations suggests that new zealand was first settled between 1250 and 1300 24 40 41 no human remains artefacts or structures can be reliably dated to earlier than the kaharoa eruption of mount tarawera around 1314 42 this scenario is also consistent with a debated third line of oral evidence 43 traditional genealogies whakapapa that point to around 1350 as a probable arrival date for several of the migratory waka canoes from which many māori trace their descent 44 45 some māori later migrated to the chatham islands where they developed their distinct moriori culture 46 a later 1835 invasion by māori iwi resulted in the massacre and virtual extinction of the moriori 47 in a hostile 1642 encounter between ngāti tūmatakōkiri and abel tasman s crew 48 49 four of tasman s crew members were killed and at least one māori was hit by canister shot 50 europeans did not revisit new zealand until 1769 when british explorer james cook mapped almost the entire coastline 49 following cook new zealand was visited by numerous european and north american whaling sealing and trading ships they traded european food metal tools weapons and other goods for timber māori food artefacts and water 51 19th century the introduction of the potato and the musket transformed māori agriculture and warfare potatoes provided a reliable food surplus which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns 52 the resulting intertribal musket wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 killing 30 000 40 000 māori 53 from the early 19th century christian missionaries began to settle new zealand eventually converting most of the māori population 54 the māori population declined to around 40 of its pre contact level during the 19th century introduced diseases were the major factor 55 the waitangi sheet from the treaty of waitangi the british government appointed james busby as british resident to new zealand in 1832 56 his duties given to him by governor bourke in sydney were to protect settlers and traders of good standing prevent outrages against māori and apprehend escaped convicts 56 57 in 1835 following an announcement of impending french settlement by charles de thierry the nebulous united tribes of new zealand sent a declaration of independence to king william iv of the united kingdom asking for protection 56 the colonial office sent captain william hobson to claim british sovereignty and negotiate a treaty with the māori prompted by growing unrest the new zealand company s land buying survey and the legal ambiguity of the 1835 declaration of independence 58 the treaty of waitangi was first signed in the bay of islands on 6 february 1840 59 in response to the new zealand company s attempts to establish an independent settlement in wellington 60 61 hobson declared british sovereignty over all of new zealand on 21 may 1840 even though copies of the treaty were still circulating throughout the country for māori to sign 62 with the signing of the treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants particularly from the united kingdom began to increase 63 new zealand was administered as a dependency of the colony of new south wales until becoming a separate crown colony the colony of new zealand on 3 may 1841 64 65 armed conflict began between the colonial government and māori in 1843 with the wairau affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty these conflicts mainly in the north island saw thousands of imperial troops and the royal navy come to new zealand and became known as the new zealand wars following these armed conflicts large areas of māori land were confiscated by the government 66 a meeting of european and māori residents of hawke s bay province engraving 1863 the colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first parliament met in 1854 67 in 1856 the colony effectively became self governing gaining responsibility over all domestic matters except native policy which was granted in the mid 1860s 67 following concerns that the south island might form a separate colony premier alfred domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from auckland to a locality near cook strait 68 69 wellington was chosen for its central location with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 70 in 1886 following requests from the government in wellington concerned about foreign influence in the region the secretary of state for colonies in london reluctantly agreed to annex the volcanic kermadec islands to new zealand islands that were seemingly not of any possible use to that colony as a result instructions were issued directing the admiral on the australian station to hoist the british flag on the kermadecs 71 which lie about 1 000 km 620 mi northeast of auckland since 1937 the islands have been uninhabited except for about six people at raoul island station these islands put the northern border of new zealand at 29 degrees south latitude 72 after the 1982 unclos the islands contributed significantly to new zealand s exclusive economic zone 73 in 1891 the liberal party came to power as the first organised political party 74 the liberal government led by richard seddon for most of its period in office 75 passed many important social and economic measures in 1893 new zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote 74 and pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions in 1894 76 the liberals also guaranteed a minimum wage in 1894 a world first 77 residents of dunedin celebrate the news of the armistice of 11 november 1918 20th century in 1907 at the request of the new zealand parliament king edward vii proclaimed new zealand a dominion within the british empire 78 reflecting its self governing status 79 at the 1926 imperial conference the prime ministers of the united kingdom and the dominions unanimously declared that all were equal and autonomous members of the british commonwealth of nations in 1947 new zealand adopted the statute of westminster implementing the declaration confirming that the british parliament could no longer legislate for the country without its consent the british government s residual legislative powers were later removed by the constitution act 1986 and final rights of appeal to the british privy council were abolished in 2003 67 early in the 20th century new zealand was involved in world affairs fighting in the first and second world wars 80 and suffering through the great depression 81 the depression led to the election of the first labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy 82 new zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the second world war 83 and māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work 84 a māori protest movement developed which criticised eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of māori culture and of the treaty of waitangi 85 in 1975 the waitangi tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the treaty and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 59 the government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi 86 although māori claims to the foreshore and seabed proved controversial in the 2000s 87 88 geography main articles geography of new zealand and environment of new zealand the snow capped southern alps dominate the south island while the north island s northland peninsula stretches towards the subtropics new zealand is near the centre of the water hemisphere and comprises two main islands and more than 700 smaller islands 89 the two main islands the north island or te ika a māui and the south island or te waipounamu are separated by cook strait 22 kilometres 14 mi wide at its narrowest point 90 besides the north and south islands the five largest inhabited islands are stewart island across the foveaux strait chatham island great barrier island in the hauraki gulf 91 d urville island in the marlborough sounds 92 and waiheke island about 22 km 14 mi from central auckland 93 the nearest continent is australia to the west north west with the shortest distance between the australian and new zealand mainlands being roughly 1 487 kilometers 924 miles across the tasman sea specifically between tasmania and fiordland the closest point between any territory of both countries is between macquarie island australia and auckland island new zealand which are about 618 kilometers 384 miles apart new zealand is long and narrow over 1 600 kilometres 990 mi along its north north east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres 250 mi 94 with about 15 000 km 9 300 mi of coastline 95 and a total land area of 268 000 square kilometres 103 500 sq mi 96 because of its far flung outlying islands and long coastline the country has extensive marine resources its exclusive economic zone is one of the world s largest covering more than 15 times its land area 97 aoraki mount cook is the highest point in new zealand at 3 724 metres the south island is the largest landmass of new zealand it is divided along its length by the southern alps 98 there are 18 peaks over 3 000 metres 9 800 ft the highest of which is aoraki mount cook at 3 724 metres 12 218 ft 99 fiordland s steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the south island 100 the north island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism 101 the highly active taupō volcanic zone has formed a large volcanic plateau punctuated by the north island s highest mountain mount ruapehu 2 797 metres 9 177 ft the plateau also hosts the country s largest lake lake taupō 89 nestled in the caldera of one of the world s most active supervolcanoes 102 new zealand is prone to earthquakes the country owes its varied topography and perhaps even its emergence above the waves to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the pacific and indo australian plates 103 new zealand is part of zealandia a microcontinent nearly half the size of australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the gondwanan supercontinent 104 105 about 25 million years ago a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region this is now most evident in the southern alps formed by compression of the crust beside the alpine fault elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other producing the puysegur trench to the south the hikurangi trough east of the north island and the kermadec and tonga trenches 106 further north 103 new zealand together with australia is part of a wider region known as australasia 107 it also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called polynesia 108 oceania is a wider region encompassing the australian continent new zealand and various island countries in the pacific ocean that are not included in the seven continent model 109 climate main article climate of new zealand köppen geiger climate classification map of new zealand autumn in the christchurch botanic gardens new zealand s climate is predominantly temperate maritime köppen cfb with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 c 50 f in the south to 16 c 61 f in the north 110 historical maxima and minima are 42 4 c 108 32 f in rangiora canterbury and 25 6 c 14 08 f in ranfurly otago 111 conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the west coast of the south island to semi arid in central otago and the mackenzie basin of inland canterbury and subtropical in northland 112 113 of the seven largest cities christchurch is the driest receiving on average only 618 millimetres 24 3 in of rain per year wellington is the wettest receiving almost twice that amount 114 auckland wellington and christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2 000 hours of sunshine the southern and southwestern parts of the south island have a cooler and cloudier climate with around 1 400 1 600 hours the northern and northeastern parts of the south island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2 400 2 500 hours 115 snow generally falls from june to october although cold snaps can occur outside of those months 116 snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the south island and mountain areas across the country 110 average daily temperatures and rainfall for selected towns and cities of new zealand 117 location january high c f january low c f july high c f july low c f annual rainfall mm in auckland 23 73 15 59 15 59 8 46 1 212 47 7 wellington 20 68 14 57 11 52 6 43 1 207 47 5 hokitika 20 68 12 54 12 54 3 37 2 901 114 2 christchurch 23 73 12 54 11 52 2 36 618 24 3 alexandra 25 77 11 52 8 46 2 28 359 14 1 biodiversity main article biodiversity of new zealand the endemic flightless kiwi is a national icon new zealand s geographic isolation for 80 million years 118 and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country s species of animals fungi and plants physical isolation has caused biological isolation resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species 119 120 the flora and fauna of new zealand were originally thought to have originated from new zealand s fragmentation off from gondwana however more recent evidence postulates species resulted from dispersal 121 about 82 of new zealand s indigenous vascular plants are endemic covering 1 944 species across 65 genera 122 123 the number of fungi recorded from new zealand including lichen forming species is not known nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic but one estimate suggests there are about 2 300 species of lichen forming fungi in new zealand 122 and 40 of these are endemic 124 the two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps or by southern beech in cooler climates 125 the remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands the majority of which are tussock 126 t...
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