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larger cross sectional area than those of a normal diode allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage tunnel diodes or esaki diodes these have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling 60 allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits because of the high carrier concentration tunnel diodes are very fast may be used at low mk temperatures high magnetic fields and in high radiation environments 61 because of these properties they are often used in spacecraft varicap or varactor diodes these are used as voltage controlled capacitors these are important in pll phase locked loop and fll frequency locked loop circuits allowing tuning circuits such as those in television receivers to lock quickly on to the frequency they also enabled tunable oscillators in the early discrete tuning of radios where a cheap and stable but fixed frequency crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage controlled oscillator zener diodes these can be made to conduct in reverse bias backward and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes this effect called zener breakdown occurs at a precisely defined voltage allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference the term zener diodes is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes but strictly speaking zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value in practical voltage reference circuits zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near zero some devices labeled as high voltage zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes see above two equivalent zeners in series and in reverse order in the same package constitute a transient absorber or transorb a registered trademark graphic symbols edit main article electronic symbol the symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general electrical function to the reader there are alternative symbols for some types of diodes though the differences are minor the triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction i e in the direction of conventional current flow diode light emitting diode led photodiode schottky diode transient voltage suppression diode tvs tunnel diode varicap zener diode typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol the thin bar depicts the cathode numbering and coding schemes edit there are a number of common standard and manufacturer driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes the two most common being the eia jedec standard and the european pro electron standard eia jedec edit the standardized 1n series numbering eia370 system was introduced in the us by eia jedec joint electron device engineering council about 1960 most diodes have a 1 prefix designation e g 1n4003 among the most popular in this series were 1n34a 1n270 germanium signal 1n914 1n4148 silicon signal 1n400x silicon 1a power rectifier and 1n580x silicon 3a power rectifier 62 63 self published source 64 failed verification jis edit the jis semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with 1s pro electron edit the european pro electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code the first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component a germanium and b silicon and the second letter represents the general function of the part for diodes a low power signal b variable capacitance x multiplier y rectifier and z voltage reference for example aa series germanium low power signal diodes e g aa119 ba series silicon low power signal diodes e g bat18 silicon rf switching diode by series silicon rectifier diodes e g by127 1250v 1a rectifier diode bz series silicon zener diodes e g bzy88c4v7 4 7v zener diode other common numbering coding systems generally manufacturer driven include gd series germanium diodes e g gd9 this is a very old coding system oa series germanium diodes e g oa47 a coding sequence developed by mullard a uk company related devices edit rectifier transistor thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier scr triac diac varistor in optics an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator also known as an optical diode that allows light to only pass in one direction it uses a faraday rotator as the main component 65 applications edit radio demodulation edit a simple envelope demodulator circuit the first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated am radio broadcasts an am signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal the diode rectifies the am radio frequency signal leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave the audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer which generates sound waves via audio speaker in microwave and millimeter wave technology beginning in the 1930s researchers improved and miniaturized the crystal detector point contact diodes crystal diodes and schottky diodes are used in radar microwave and millimeter wave detectors 41 power conversion edit main article rectifier schematic of basic ac to dc power supply rectifiers are constructed from diodes where they are used to convert alternating current ac electricity into direct current dc automotive alternators are a common example where the diode which rectifies the ac into dc provides better performance than the commutator or earlier dynamo similarly diodes are also used in cockcroft walton voltage multipliers to convert ac into higher dc voltages reverse voltage protection edit since most electronic circuits can be damaged when the polarity of their power supply inputs are reversed a series diode is sometimes used to protect against such situations this concept is known by multiple naming variations that mean the same thing reverse voltage protection reverse polarity protection and reverse battery protection over voltage protection edit diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices they are usually reverse biased non conducting under normal circumstances when the voltage rises above the normal range the diodes become forward biased conducting for example diodes are used in stepper motor and h bridge motor controller and relay circuits to de energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur a diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors specialized diodes are used to protect from over voltages at higher power see diode types above logic gates edit main article diode logic diode resistor logic constructs and and or logic gates functional completeness can be achieved by adding an active device to provide inversion as done with diode transistor logic ionizing radiation detectors edit in addition to light mentioned above semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation in electronics cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors this effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation a single particle of radiation with thousands or millions of electron volt s of energy generates many charge carrier pairs as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material if the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle a fairly accurate measurement of the particle s energy can be made simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer etc these semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current they are often cooled by liquid nitrogen for longer range about a centimeter particles they need a very large depletion depth and large area for short range particles they need any contact or un depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin the back bias voltages are near breakdown around a thousand volts per centimeter germanium and silicon are common materials some of these detectors sense position as well as energy they have a finite life especially when detecting heavy particles because of radiation damage silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers because of energy loss fluctuations accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use temperature measurements edit a diode can be used as a temperature measuring device since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor from the shockley ideal diode equation given above it might appear that the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient at a constant current but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more significant than the variation in the thermal voltage term most diodes therefore have a negative temperature coefficient typically 2 mv c for silicon diodes the temperature coefficient is approximately constant for temperatures above about 20 kelvin some graphs are given for 1n400x series 66 and cy7 cryogenic temperature sensor 67 current steering edit diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions to supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure the circuit can draw current from a battery an uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that the current is only drawn from the battery when necessary likewise small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery batteries one used for engine starting one used for domestics normally both are charged from a single alternator and a heavy duty split charge diode is used to prevent the higher charge battery typically the engine battery from discharging through the lower charge battery when the alternator is not running diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards to reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits the keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed the problem with matrix circuits is that when several notes are pressed at once the current can flow backward through the circuit and trigger phantom keys that cause ghost notes to play to avoid triggering unwanted notes most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard the same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid state pinball machines waveform clipper edit main article clipper electronics diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage clamper edit main article clamper electronics this simple diode clamp will clamp the negative peaks of the incoming waveform to the common rail voltage a diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and negative values and vertically displace it such that either the positive or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level the clamper does not restrict the peak to peak excursion of the signal it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level computing exponentials and logarithms edit the diode s exponential current voltage relationship is exploited to evaluate exponentiation and its inverse function the logarithm using analog voltage signals see operational amplifier applications exponential output and logarithmic output abbreviations edit diodes are usually referred to as d for diode on pcbs sometimes the abbreviation cr for crystal rectifier is used 68 see also edit electronics portal active rectification diode connected transistor diode modelling fast ultrafast diode flame rectification lambda diode lr diode p n junction small signal model references edit https computerhistory org blog who invented the diode cite web missing or empty title help tooley mike 2013 electronic circuits fundamentals and applications 3rd ed routledge p 81 isbn 978 1 136 40731 4 crecraft filip mincic stephen gergely 2002 analog electronics circuits systems and signal processing butterworth heinemann p 110 isbn 0 7506 5095 8 horowitz paul winfield hill 1989 the art of electronics 2nd ed london cambridge university press p 44 isbn 0 521 37095 7 physical explanation general semiconductors 2010 05 25 retrieved 2010 08 06 the constituents of 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electronics thermionic emission and vacuum journal of vacuum science technology a vacuum surfaces and films 16 3 1394 1401 bibcode 1998jvsta 16 1394r doi 10 1116 1 581157 issn 0734 2101 road to the transistor jmargolin com retrieved 2008 09 22 us755840a bose jagadis chunder detector for electrical disturbances issued 1904 03 29 braun ferdinand 1874 ueber die stromleitung durch schwefelmetalle on current conduction in metal sulphides annalen der physik und chemie 153 556 563 karl ferdinand braun chem ch huji ac il 1 2 3 4 laws david 2013 11 06 who invented the diode computer history museum archived from the original on 2025 03 23 retrieved 2025 06 27 sarkar tapan k 2006 history of wireless us john wiley and sons pp 94 291 308 isbn 0 471 71814 9 pickard g w means for receiving intelligence communicated by electric waves u s patent 836 531 issued august 30 1906 1 2 3 scaff j h ohl r s development of silicon crystal rectifiers for microwave radar receivers the bell system technical journal 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