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729, 715, gudde, nicholas, 0954, 4070, 0954407016680522, 232, institution, mechanical, adaptation, recommended, 192, dion, andrea, cfrn, surpasses, latest, census, smargiassi, audrey, kosatsky, tom, hicks, plante, céline, armstrong, ben, villeneuve, paul, goudreau, sophie, 659, 19440507, 2679612, 1289, ehp, 0800010, 2009envhp, 653s, 653, asthmatic, episodes, children, stack, montreal, flower, ragas, wade, 338, 0896, 5803, 10835547, 12090756, estate, neighborhood, property, values, refiniries, hargreaves, steve, cnn, money, crunch, morata, thais, engel, terry, durão, alvaro, thelma, krieg, edward, dunn, derek, lozano, maria, angelica, 9309809, 0105, 0397, 3109, 01050399709074987, scandinavian, audiology, suez, solids, cheresources, flowchart, chevron, sons, mineral, resource, month, bernhard, unserer, zeit, issue, 378, 392, der, prozess, reich, jahren, und, bedeutender, denn, recovered, loren, zawacki, 1978, assigned, 4080424, arthur, kohl, nielson, 220, liu, subramani, velu, chunshan, stefanidakis, gwyn, 1993
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phaltum was in general use 54 the word derives from the ancient greek word ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos which referred to natural bitumen or pitch the largest natural deposit of bitumen in the world is the pitch lake of southwest trinidad which is estimated to contain 10 million tons 55 other products edit sulfur or sulfuric acid byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a couple of percent sulfur as organic sulfur containing compounds sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial materials sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum petroleum coke abbreviated coke pet coke or petcoke is a final carbon rich solid material that derives from oil refining and is one type of the group of fuels referred to as cokes petcoke is the coke that in particular derives from a final cracking process a thermo based chemical engineering process that splits long chain hydrocarbons of petroleum into shorter chains that takes place in units termed coker units 56 other types of coke are derived from coal stated succinctly coke is the carbonization product of high boiling hydrocarbon fractions obtained in petroleum processing heavy residues 56 petcoke is also produced in the production of synthetic crude oil syncrude from bitumen extracted from canada s oil sands and from venezuela s orinoco oil sands 57 58 in petroleum coker units residual oils from other distillation processes used in petroleum refining are treated at a high temperature and pressure leaving the petcoke after driving off gases and volatiles and separating off remaining light and heavy oils these processes are termed coking processes and most typically employ chemical engineering plant operations for the specific process of delayed coking petrochemicals sometimes abbreviated as petchems 59 are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas or renewable sources such as maize palm fruit or sugar cane over 6 000 items are made from petroleum waste by products including fertilizer floor coverings perfume insecticide petroleum jelly soap and vitamin capsules 60 sample of crude oil petroleum cylinders of liquified petroleum gas sample of gasoline sample of kerosene sample of diesel fuel motor oil pile of asphalt covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete sulphur chemical processes edit storage tanks and towers at shell puget sound refinery shell oil company anacortes washington desalter edit a desalter is a process unit in an oil refinery that removes salt from the crude oil the salt is dissolved in the water in the crude oil not in the crude oil itself the desalting is usually the first process in crude oil refining the salt content after the desalter is usually measured in ptb pounds of salt per thousand barrels of crude oil 61 another specification is basic sediment and water 62 63 64 atmospheric and vacuum distillation edit see also continuous distillation atmospheric and vacuum distillation of crude oils are the main primary separation processes producing various straight run products e g gasoline to lube oils vacuum gas oils distillation of crude oil is typically performed first 65 under atmospheric pressure and then under a vacuum low boiling fractions usually vaporize below 400 c at atmospheric pressure without cracking the hydrocarbon compounds therefore all the low boiling fractions of crude oil are separated by atmospheric distillation a crude oil distillation unit cdu consists of the pre flash distillation column the petroleum products obtained from the distillation process are light medium and heavy naphtha kerosene diesel and oil residue 66 67 68 69 70 71 vacuum distillation or distillation under reduced pressure is a type of distillation performed under reduced pressure which allows the purification of compounds not readily distilled at ambient pressures or simply to save time or energy this technique separates compounds based on differences in their boiling points this technique is used when the boiling point of the desired compound is difficult to achieve or will cause the compound to decompose 72 reduced pressures decrease the boiling point of compounds the reduction in boiling point can be calculated using a temperature pressure nomograph using the clausius clapeyron relation 73 67 68 69 70 71 hydrodesulfurization edit hydrodesulfurization hds also called hydrotreatment or hydrotreating is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur s from natural gas and from refined petroleum products such as gasoline or petrol jet fuel kerosene diesel fuel and fuel oils 74 75 76 the purpose of removing the sulfur and creating products such as ultra low sulfur diesel is to reduce the sulfur dioxide so 2 emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles aircraft railroad locomotives ships gas or oil burning power plants residential and industrial furnaces and other forms of fuel combustion 1 77 78 catalytic reforming edit catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert naphthas from crude oil into liquid products called reformates which are premium blending stocks for high octane gasoline the process converts low octane linear hydrocarbons paraffins into branched alkanes isoparaffins and cyclic naphthenes which are then partially dehydrogenated to produce high octane aromatic hydrocarbons 79 the dehydrogenation also produces significant amounts of byproduct hydrogen gas which is fed into other refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization a side reaction is hydrogenolysis which produces light hydrocarbons of lower value such as methane ethane propane and butanes 80 81 fluid catalytic cracking edit fluid catalytic cracking fcc is the conversion process used in petroleum refineries to convert the high boiling point high molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils into gasoline alkene gases and other petroleum products 82 83 84 the cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally done by thermal cracking now virtually replaced by catalytic cracking which yields greater volumes of high octane rating gasoline and produces by product gases with more carbon carbon double bonds i e alkenes that are of greater economic value than the gases produced by thermal cracking 85 3 86 hydrocracker edit hydrocracking is a catalytic cracking process assisted by the presence of added hydrogen gas unlike a hydrotreater hydrocracking uses hydrogen to break c c bonds hydrotreatment is conducted prior to hydrocracking to protect the catalysts in a hydrocracking process in 2010 265 million tonnes 261 000 000 long tons 292 000 000 short tons of petroleum was processed with this technology the main feedstock is vacuum gas oil a heavy fraction of petroleum 87 88 89 90 merox edit merox is an acronym for mercaptan oxidation it is a proprietary catalytic chemical process developed by uop used in oil refineries and natural gas processing plants to remove mercaptans from lpg propane butanes light naphthas kerosene and jet fuel by converting them to liquid hydrocarbon disulfides alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known e g doctor sweetening process and caustic washing coker unit edit a coker or coker unit is an oil refinery processing unit that converts the residual oil from the vacuum distillation column into low molecular weight hydrocarbon gases naphtha light and heavy gas oils and petroleum coke the process thermally cracks the long chain hydrocarbon molecules in the residual oil feed into shorter chain molecules leaving behind the excess carbon in the form of petroleum coke a delayed coker is a type of coker whose process consists of heating a residual oil feed to its thermal cracking temperature in a furnace with multiple parallel passes this cracks the heavy long chain hydrocarbon molecules of the residual oil into coker gas oil and petroleum coke 91 92 93 alkylation unit edit an alkylation unit alky is one of the conversion processes used in petroleum refineries it is used to convert isobutane and low molecular weight alkenes primarily a mixture of propene and butenes into alkylate a high octane gasoline component the process occurs in the presence of an acid such as sulfuric acid h 2 so 4 or hydrofluoric acid hf as catalyst depending on the acid used the unit is called a sulfuric acid alkylation unit saau or hydrofluoric acid alkylation unit hfau in short the alky produces a high quality gasoline blending stock by combining two shorter hydrocarbon molecules into one longer chain gasoline range molecule by mixing isobutane with a light olefin such as propylene or butylene from the refinery s fluid catalytic cracking unit fccu in the presence of an acid catalyst 94 95 dimerization unit edit dimerization unit converts olefins into higher octane gasoline blending components for example butenes can be dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane there are also other uses for dimerization gasoline produced through dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive it tends spontaneously to form gums for this reason the effluent from the dimerization needs to be blended into the finished gasoline pool immediately or hydrogenated isomerization edit isomerization converts linear molecules such as normal pentane to higher octane branched molecules for blending into gasoline or feed to alkylation units also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the alkylation unit steam reforming edit steam reforming or steam methane reforming smr is a method for producing syngas hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction of hydrocarbons with water commonly natural gas is the feedstock the main purpose of this technology is often hydrogen production although syngas has multiple other uses such as production of ammonia or methanol the reaction is represented by this equilibrium 96 lng storage tank edit a liquefied natural gas storage tank or a lng storage tank is a specialized type of storage tank used for the storage of liquefied natural gas or lng lng storage tanks can be found in ground above ground or in lng carriers amine gas treater edit amine gas treating also known as amine scrubbing gas sweetening and acid gas removal refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkylamines commonly referred to simply as amines to remove hydrogen sulfide h 2 s and carbon dioxide co 2 from gases 97 98 99 it is a common unit process used in refineries and is also used in petrochemical plants natural gas processing plants and other industries the claus process is a desulfurizing process recovering elemental sulfur from gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen sulfide h 2 s first patented in 1883 by the chemist carl friedrich claus the claus process remains the most important desulfurization process in the petrochemicals industry it is standard at oil refineries natural gas processing plants and gasification or synthesis gas plants in 2005 byproduct sulfur from hydrocarbon processing facilities constituted the vast majority of the 64 teragrams 64 million metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide 100 101 102 103 104 64 power generation edit cooling towers circulate cooling water boiler plants generates steam for steam generators and instrument air systems include pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation waste treatment edit wastewater collection and treating systems consist of api separators dissolved air flotation daf units and further treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal 105 solvent refining uses solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted mainly aromatics from lubricating oil stock or diesel stock solvent dewaxing removes the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation products storage tanks for storing crude oil and finished products usually vertical cylindrical vessels with some sort of vapor emission control and surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills flow diagram of typical refinery edit the image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between the inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products the diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations the diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam cooling water and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products 1 106 107 108 schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery there are many process configurations other than that depicted above for example the vacuum distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as spindle oil used in the textile industry light machine oil motor oil and various waxes crude oil distillation unit edit the crude oil distillation unit cdu is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries the cdu distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges each of which is then processed further in the other refinery processing units the cdu is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure 1 2 69 below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit the incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot distilled fractions and other streams it is then desalted to remove inorganic salts primarily sodium chloride following the desalter the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot distilled fractions and other streams it is then heated in a fuel fired furnace fired heater to a temperature of about 398 c and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit the cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air cooled or water cooled condenser additional heat is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below as shown in the flow diagram the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha the fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts each of the sidecuts i e the kerosene light gas oil and heavy gas oil is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil all of the fractions i e the overhead naphtha the sidecuts and the bottom residue are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries location of refineries edit...
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