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the pki and shifted power to the army 97 the supersemar order in 1966 gave suharto de facto control over key executive and security powers an effective transfer of power from sukarno 98 suharto s new order restricted political organisation embedded the military in government and used his political party golkar and a tightly controlled party system to dominate elections 99 the act of free choice in 1969 formally incorporated western new guinea into indonesia however just over a thousand selected community leaders took part in it amid reports of military intimidation 100 many papuans opposed this integration and armed resistance has continued since then 101 102 in 1975 indonesia invaded portuguese timor and annexed the territory the following year 103 in aceh hasan di tiro founded the free aceh movement gam in 1976 and declared independence from indonesia the insurgency was largely suppressed by 1979 but revived in 1989 after the return of fighters trained in libya prompting a decade long military campaign 104 the new order reopened the economy to foreign capital and pursued industrialisation through investment foreign aid and state development plans 105 manufacturing expanded and the number of people below the official poverty line fell substantially by the mid 1990s 106 at the same time conglomerates controlled by suharto s family and close associates accumulated extensive wealth 107 108 the asian financial crisis of 1997 98 caused sharp economic downturn 109 110 followed by protests and unrest in several cities including jakarta medan and surakarta this culminated in suharto s resignation in may 1998 111 in a un supervised referendum in 1999 a majority of east timorese voters rejected continued remaining within indonesia 112 east timor later became an independent country in 2002 113 114 reformasi and contemporary indonesia main article reform era in indonesia damage following the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in banda aceh january 2005 the period after suharto known as reformasi in indonesia brought constitutional amendments competitive elections and decentralisation 115 116 the military lost its reserved parliamentary seats and the police became a separate service but military influence did not disappear 117 democratic institutions were established but patronage and influence of oligarchy persisted 118 former general susilo bambang yudhoyono won the first direct presidential election in 2004 119 his administration reached a peace agreement with aceh separatists in 2005 after the previous year s indian ocean tsunami brought more international attention to the province 120 sporadic bombings occurred throughout the 2000s but had declined by the early 2010s 121 joko widodo elected president in 2014 122 made infrastructure economic development and welfare central to his presidency 123 124 electoral competition continued but the lack of parliamentary opposition 125 and changes to the anti corruption commission restrictions on dissent and interference in the 2024 election reduced the quality of democracy 126 widodo backed prabowo subianto and his son gibran rakabuming raka whose ticket won the 2024 election 125 under prabowo the government pursued a fiscally expansive programme 127 while new laws permitted a larger cabinet 125 and a 2025 revision of the military law allowed more active officers to serve in civilian posts 128 geography main articles geography of indonesia and list of islands of indonesia lake toba in north sumatra the world s largest known cenozoic caldera 129 indonesia lies within one of the most tectonically active regions on earth 130 indonesia is an equatorial archipelago of coastal plains mountains and volcanic islands it lies between latitudes 11 s and 6 n and longitudes 95 e and 141 e 131 and is the world s largest archipelagic state extending 5 120 kilometres 3 181 mi from east to west and 1 760 kilometres 1 094 mi from north to south 132 several straits including malacca sunda and lombok carry international traffic between the indian and pacific oceans including ships transporting energy supplies and commercial cargo 133 134 the number of indonesian islands varies by counting method with published figures ranging from 13 466 named islands to more than 17 500 135 about 922 of them are permanently inhabited 136 its five main islands are sumatra java sulawesi borneo and new guinea indonesia occupies most of borneo where it is known as kalimantan and the western part of new guinea commonly called papua the remainder of those islands is shared with brunei and malaysia and with papua new guinea respectively 137 java accounts for less than 7 of indonesia s land area but is its most populous island with intensive farming and extensive urban growth 138 forest cover also differs widely with larger forested areas in papua and maluku than in java and bali 139 indonesia s terrain includes high peaks volcanic lakes major rivers and coastal plains at 4 884 metres 16 024 ft puncak jaya on new guinea is indonesia s highest peak 140 while lake toba on sumatra is its largest lake 141 in kalimantan major waterways like the kapuas barito and mahakam rivers have historically served as corridors for movement and trade between communities in the island s interior and those near the coast 142 indonesia occupies a complex plate boundary zone where the eurasian india australia and pacific philippine sea tectonic plates interact with subduction zones along these boundaries producing frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity 143 144 the resulting volcanic belt contains roughly 400 volcanoes around 130 of which are considered active 145 this tectonic setting also exposes the archipelago to major earthquake and tsunami hazards the sumatra earthquake in 2004 generated a tsunami that caused widespread destruction in aceh 146 the archipelago has also experienced eruptions of exceptional magnitude no larger explosive event is known from the past 2 5 million years than the toba super eruption about 74 000 years ago 147 and the eruption of tambora in 1815 was followed by global cooling and the year without a summer in 1816 148 climate main articles climate of indonesia and climate change in indonesia köppen geiger climate classification map of indonesia 149 indonesia s equatorial position and monsoon winds give it a tropical climate most lowland areas are warm and humid throughout the year while higher terrain is cooler and seasonal temperature differences are small 150 seasonal changes in the monsoon generally bring wetter conditions from november to april and drier conditions from may to october but their timing and intensity vary by region 150 151 much of the country has a tropical rainforest climate with tropical monsoon and savanna climates across parts of the islands 152 seasonal rainfall helps set rice planting calendars and influences droughts floods and fires 153 154 155 rainfall varies across the archipelago western sumatra western java and portions of kalimantan and papua receive the highest annual rainfall whereas regions in closer proximity to australia such as nusa tenggara experience a significantly drier climate 156 the surrounding oceans island geography monsoon winds and topography all affect where and when rain falls 157 in drought prone regions of the country el niño can suppress rainfall and prolong dry periods causing water shortages and crop losses 158 159 indonesia already faces climate related hazards climate projections indicate further warming and sea level rise changes in rainfall patterns and greater risks from extreme heat and flooding 160 161 these changes affect agriculture water resources public health coastal settlements and wildfire management 162 163 sea level rise is especially relevant to coastal areas where much of indonesia s population and infrastructure is located 164 165 evidence from pekalongan in central java suggests that households with fewer economic resources and communities with weaker infrastructure may have less capacity to adapt 166 biodiversity and conservation main articles fauna of indonesia flora of indonesia environment of indonesia and conservation in indonesia see also protected areas of indonesia list of national parks of indonesia and list of biosphere reserves of indonesia the komodo dragon varanus komodoensis is one of indonesia s officially designated national animals under a presidential decree in 1993 167 indonesia is among the 17 countries identified as megadiverse by conservation international its many islands and geological past have helped produce a highly diverse flora and fauna 168 169 within the archipelago wallacea is a transition zone between asian and australian fauna and one of the world s largest centres of endemism 170 in 2015 an estimated 83 of southeast asia s old growth forest was in indonesia 171 mangrove forests coral reefs and seagrass beds are among indonesia s coastal ecosystems 172 large oil palm and timber plantations were estimated to account for more than two fifths of national deforestation between 2001 and 2016 173 conversion of forest land for farming roads and other development breaks up remaining habitat which affects species populations habitat quality and biodiversity 174 peat swamp forests are important carbon stores and habitat for threatened taxa but are especially vulnerable to logging fire and land conversion 175 surveys of 15 reefs in three regions found lower coral diversity where reefs were exposed to land based pollution and anchor damage 176 indonesia has designated 554 protected areas covering 27 million hectares equivalent to 14 of its land area 177 assessments conducted in 2015 2017 and 2019 found improved management scores but identified poaching illegal logging human settlements tourism and non timber cultivation as the main threats to protected areas 177 in papua research around the cyclops mountains protected area found limited consultation with nearby communities and implementation problems linked to scarce resources 178 government and politics main article politics of indonesia see also government of indonesia a presidential inauguration by the mpr in the parliament complex jakarta 2014 indonesia is a unitary republic with a presidential system under the 1945 constitution 179 180 the constitution s five principles of pancasila are taught through the civic education 181 182 after the fall of the new order in 1998 four constitutional amendments between 1999 and 2002 altered the political system by introducing direct presidential elections establishing new state institutions reducing the mpr s role and giving regional autonomy a constitutional basis 183 indonesia remained a unitary state while decentralisation transferred substantial powers to the provinces districts and cities 184 the president is head of state head of government 180 and commander in chief of the indonesian national armed forces and may serve no more than two five year terms 185 the people s consultative assembly mpr consists of elected members of the house of representatives dpr and the regional representative council dpd 186 the mpr may amend the constitution inaugurates the president and vice president and may dismiss them under constitutional procedures 187 the dpr makes laws with the president approves the state budget and oversees the government 188 the dpd may propose review and advise on bills concerning regional government 180 but has less authority than the dpr 189 indonesia s legal system belongs primarily to the civil law tradition while also incorporating customary adat law and islamic law including in marriage and inheritance matters for muslims 190 judicial power is exercised by the supreme court the courts beneath it and the constitutional court 191 the supreme court acts as the final appellate court and reviews regulations below statutes 190 the constitutional court reviews statutes for constitutionality decides disputes over state institution powers political party dissolution and election results 192 it also has a role in presidential impeachment proceedings 193 the religious courts hear marriage divorce and inheritance cases as well as certain economic disputes arising under islamic law 194 the judicial commission proposes candidates for supreme court justices and has responsibilities concerning judicial conduct 192 parties and elections main articles list of political parties in indonesia and elections in indonesia prabowo subianto president gibran rakabuming raka vice president since the return to competitive elections in 1999 indonesia has had a fragmented multi party system 195 no party has won a majority in legislative elections 196 and presidents have usually governed through broad coalitions that include many parties in the legislature and cabinet 197 198 political parties are often distinguished by their orientation toward secular nationalism or political islam e 199 but governing coalitions commonly include both 200 party politics often relies more on patronage and elite power sharing than detailed policy programmes 201 although the role of islam in public life is a source of ideological difference 202 opposition parties have at times joined presidential power sharing arrangements after elections 203 indonesia held its first general election in 1955 204 since 2004 voters have directly elected the president the dpr and the dpd every five years 205 members of the dpr are elected through party based contests 206 while dpd candidates run as individuals to represent provincial constituencies 207 national elections require large scale logistics as ballots and other materials must reach remote islands mountain areas and places with limited infrastructure 208 administrative divisions main article subdivisions of indonesia indonesia is a unitary state divided into provinces regencies and cities each with elected regional authorities regulated by law 209 provinces are headed by governors and have provincial legislatures dprd regencies and cities are headed by regents and mayors and have local legislatures 209 below regencies and cities are districts which are divided into villages 210 rural villages have self governing status while urban villages form part of district administration 211 regional autonomy after 1998 transferred substantial powers to subnational governments including the provinces 212 special arrangements apply to nine of them aceh may apply aspects of islamic law 213 the six provinces in papua have special autonomy 214 and yogyakarta retains a hereditary sultanate 215 jakarta has autonomy due to its role as the national capital 216 since 2022 nusantara in east kalimantan has been planned as the future national capital 217 this section is transcluded from template indonesia provinces labelled map edit history aceh north sumatra west sumatra riau riau islands bangka belitung jambi south sumatra bengkulu lampung banten jakarta west java central java yogyakarta east java bali west nusa tenggara east nusa tenggar...
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