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lt often linger near or in sewage outfalls some species such as nurse sharks have external barbels that greatly increase their ability to sense prey sight eye of a bigeyed sixgill shark hexanchus nakamurai shark eyes are similar to the eyes of other vertebrates including similar lenses corneas and retinas though their eyesight is well adapted to the marine environment with the help of a tissue called tapetum lucidum this tissue is behind the retina and reflects light back to it thereby increasing visibility in the dark waters the effectiveness of the tissue varies with some sharks having stronger nocturnal adaptations many sharks can contract and dilate their pupils like humans something no teleost fish can do sharks have eyelids but they do not blink because the surrounding water cleans their eyes to protect their eyes some species have nictitating membranes this membrane covers the eyes while hunting and when the shark is being attacked however some species including the great white shark carcharodon carcharias do not have this membrane but instead roll their eyes backwards to protect them when striking prey the importance of sight in shark hunting behavior is debated some believe that electro and chemoreception are more significant while others point to the nictating membrane as evidence that sight is important since presumably the shark would not protect its eyes were they unimportant the use of sight probably varies with species and water conditions the shark s field of vision can swap between monocular and stereoscopic at any time 62 a micro spectrophotometry study of 17 species of sharks found 10 had only rod photoreceptors and no cone cells in their retinas giving them good night vision while making them colorblind the remaining seven species had in addition to rods a single type of cone photoreceptor sensitive to green and seeing only in shades of grey and green are believed to be effectively colorblind the study indicates that an object s contrast against the background rather than colour may be more important for object detection 63 64 65 hearing although it is hard to test the hearing of sharks they may have a sharp sense of hearing and can possibly hear prey from many miles away 66 the hearing sensitivity for most shark species lies between 20 and 1000 hz 67 a small opening on each side of their heads not the spiracle leads directly into the inner ear through a thin channel the lateral line shows a similar arrangement and is open to the environment via a series of openings called lateral line pores this is a reminder of the common origin of these two vibration and sound detecting organs that are grouped together as the acoustico lateralis system in bony fish and tetrapods the external opening into the inner ear has been lost electroreception main article electroreception electromagnetic field receptors ampullae of lorenzini and motion detecting canals in the head of a shark the ampullae of lorenzini are the electroreceptor organs they number in the hundreds to thousands sharks use the ampullae of lorenzini to detect the electromagnetic fields that all living things produce 68 this helps sharks particularly the hammerhead shark find prey the shark has the greatest electrical sensitivity of any animal sharks find prey hidden in sand by detecting the electric fields they produce ocean currents moving in the magnetic field of the earth also generate electric fields that sharks can use for orientation and possibly navigation 69 lateral line main article lateral line this system is found in most fish including sharks it is a tactile sensory system which allows the organism to detect water speed and pressure changes near by 70 the main component of the system is the neuromast a cell similar to hair cells present in the vertebrate ear that interact with the surrounding aquatic environment this helps sharks distinguish between the currents around them obstacles off on their periphery and struggling prey out of visual view the shark can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 hz 71 life history the claspers of male spotted wobbegong shark egg the spiral egg case of a port jackson shark shark lifespans vary by species most live 20 to 30 years the spiny dogfish has one of the longest lifespans at more than 100 years 72 whale sharks rhincodon typus may also live over 100 years 73 earlier estimates suggested the greenland shark somniosus microcephalus could reach about 200 years but a recent study found that a 5 02 metre long 16 5 ft specimen was 392 120 years old i e at least 272 years old making it the longest lived vertebrate known 74 75 reproduction unlike most bony fish sharks are k selected reproducers meaning that they produce a small number of well developed young as opposed to a large number of poorly developed young fecundity in sharks ranges from 2 to over 100 young per reproductive cycle 76 sharks mature slowly relative to many other fish for example lemon sharks reach sexual maturity at around age 13 15 77 sexual sharks practice internal fertilization 78 the posterior part of a male shark s pelvic fins are modified into a pair of intromittent organs called claspers analogous to a mammalian penis of which one is used to deliver sperm into the female 79 mating has rarely been observed in sharks 80 the smaller catsharks often mate with the male curling around the female in less flexible species the two sharks swim parallel to each other while the male inserts a clasper into the female s oviduct females in many of the larger species have bite marks that appear to be a result of a male grasping them to maintain position during mating the bite marks may also come from courtship behavior the male may bite the female to show his interest in some species females have evolved thicker skin to withstand these bites 79 asexual there have been a number of documented cases in which a female shark who has not been in contact with a male has conceived a pup on her own through parthenogenesis 81 82 the details of this process are not well understood but genetic fingerprinting showed that the pups had no paternal genetic contribution ruling out sperm storage the extent of this behavior in the wild is unknown mammals are now the only major vertebrate group in which asexual reproduction has not been observed scientists say that asexual reproduction in the wild is rare and probably a last ditch effort to reproduce when a mate is not present asexual reproduction diminishes genetic diversity which helps build defenses against threats to the species species that rely solely on it risk extinction asexual reproduction may have contributed to the blue shark s decline off the irish coast 83 brooding sharks display three ways to bear their young varying by species oviparity viviparity and ovoviviparity 84 78 ovoviviparity most sharks are ovoviviparous meaning that the eggs hatch in the oviduct within the mother s body and that the egg s yolk and fluids secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct nourishes the embryos the young continue to be nourished by the remnants of the yolk and the oviduct s fluids as in viviparity the young are born alive and fully functional lamniforme sharks practice oophagy where the first embryos to hatch eat the remaining eggs taking this a step further sand tiger shark pups cannibalistically consume neighboring embryos the survival strategy for ovoviviparous species is to brood the young to a comparatively large size before birth the whale shark is now classified as ovoviviparous rather than oviparous because extrauterine eggs are now thought to have been aborted most ovoviviparous sharks give birth in sheltered areas including bays river mouths and shallow reefs they choose such areas for protection from predators mainly other sharks and the abundance of food dogfish have the longest known gestation period of any shark at 18 to 24 months basking sharks and frilled sharks appear to have even longer gestation periods but accurate data are lacking 84 oviparity some species are oviparous laying their fertilized eggs in the water in most oviparous shark species an egg case with the consistency of leather protects the developing embryo s these cases may be corkscrewed into crevices for protection the egg case is commonly called a mermaid s purse oviparous sharks include the horn shark catshark port jackson shark and swellshark 84 85 uterus placenta and fetus of a silvertip shark viviparity viviparity is the gestation of young without the use of a traditional egg and results in live birth 86 viviparity in sharks can be placental or aplacental 86 young are born fully formed and self sufficient 86 hammerheads the requiem sharks such as the bull and blue sharks and smoothhounds are viviparous 76 84 behavior the classic view describes a solitary hunter ranging the oceans in search of food however this applies to only a few species most live far more social sedentary benthic lives and appear likely to have their own distinct personalities 87 even solitary sharks meet for breeding or at rich hunting grounds which may lead them to cover thousands of miles in a year 88 shark migration patterns may be even more complex than in birds with many sharks covering entire ocean basins sharks can be highly social remaining in large schools sometimes more than 100 scalloped hammerheads congregate around seamounts and islands e g in the gulf of california 43 cross species social hierarchies exist for example oceanic whitetip sharks dominate silky sharks of comparable size during feeding 76 when approached too closely some sharks perform a threat display this usually consists of exaggerated swimming movements and can vary in intensity according to the threat level 89 speed in general sharks swim cruise at an average speed of 8 kilometres per hour 5 0 mph but when feeding or attacking the average shark can reach speeds upwards of 19 kilometres per hour 12 mph the shortfin mako shark the fastest shark and one of the fastest fish can burst at speeds up to 50 kilometres per hour 31 mph 90 the great white shark is also capable of speed bursts these exceptions may be due to the warm blooded or homeothermic nature of these sharks physiology sharks can travel 70 to 80 km in a day 91 intelligence sharks possess brain to body mass ratios that are similar to mammals and birds 92 and have exhibited apparent curiosity and behavior resembling play in the wild 93 94 there is evidence that juvenile lemon sharks can use observational learning in their investigation of novel objects in their environment 95 sleep all sharks need to keep water flowing over their gills in order for them to breathe however not all species need to be moving to do this those that are able to breathe while not swimming do so by using their spiracles to force water over their gills thereby allowing them to extract oxygen from the water it has been recorded that their eyes remain open while in this state and actively follow the movements of divers swimming around them 96 and as such they are not truly asleep species that do need to swim continuously to breathe go through a process known as sleep swimming in which the shark is essentially unconscious it is known from experiments conducted on the spiny dogfish that its spinal cord rather than its brain coordinates swimming so spiny dogfish can continue to swim while sleeping and this also may be the case in larger shark species 96 in 2016 a great white shark was captured on video for the first time in a state researchers believed was sleep swimming 97 ecology feeding this section is about shark feeding for the sport of shark feeding see shark baiting a great white shark attacking bait at isla guadalupe mexico most sharks are carnivorous 98 basking sharks whale sharks and megamouth sharks have independently evolved different strategies for filter feeding plankton basking sharks practice ram feeding whale sharks use suction to take in plankton and small fishes and megamouth sharks make suction feeding more efficient by using the luminescent tissue inside of their mouths to attract prey in the deep ocean this type of feeding requires gill rakers long slender filaments that form a very efficient sieve analogous to the baleen plates of the great whales the shark traps the plankton in these filaments and swallows from time to time in huge mouthfuls teeth in these species are comparatively small because they are not needed for feeding 98 other highly specialized feeders include cookiecutter sharks which feed on flesh sliced out of other larger fish and marine mammals cookiecutter teeth are enormous compared to the animal s size the lower teeth are particularly sharp although they have never been observed feeding they are believed to latch onto their prey and use their thick lips to make a seal twisting their bodies to rip off flesh 43 some seabed dwelling species are highly effective ambush predators angel sharks and wobbegongs use camouflage to lie in wait and suck prey into their mouths 99 many benthic sharks feed solely on crustaceans which they crush with their flat molariform teeth other sharks feed on squid or fish which they swallow whole the viper dogfish has teeth it can point outwards to strike and capture prey that it then swallows intact the great white and other large predators either swallow small prey whole or take huge bites out of large animals thresher sharks use their long tails to stun shoaling fishes and sawsharks either stir prey from the seabed or slash at swimming prey with their tooth studded rostra the bonnethead shark is the only known omnivorous species its main prey is crustaceans and mollusks but it also eats a large amount of seagrass and is able to digest and extract nutrients from about 50 of the seagrass it consumes 100 many sharks including the whitetip reef shark are cooperative feeders and hunt in packs to herd and capture elusive prey these social sharks are often migratory traveling huge distances around ocean basins in large schools these migrations may be partly necessary to find new food sources 101 range and habitat sharks are found in all seas they generally do not live in fresh water with a few exceptions such as the bull shark and the river shark which can swim both in seawater and freshwater 102 sharks are common down to depths of 2 000 metres 7 000 ft and some live even deeper but they are almost entirely absent below 3 000 metres 10 000 ft the deepest confirmed report of a shark is a portuguese dogfish at 3 700 metres 12 100 ft 103 relationship with humans attacks main article shark attack a sign warning about the presence of sharks in salt rock south africa snorkeler swims near a blacktip reef shark in rare circumstances involving poor visibility blacktips may bite a human mistaking it for prey under normal conditions they are harmless and shy in 2006 the international shark attack file isaf undertook an investigation into 96 alleged shark attacks confirming 62 of them as ...
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