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enice aldus manutius 1506 commedia di dante insieme con uno diagolo circa el sito forma et misure dello inferno florence philippo di giunta 1555 la divina comedia di dante venice gabriel giolito first use of divine in title title page of the first printed edition foligno 11 april 1472 illustration of lucifer in the first fully illustrated print edition woodcut for inferno canto 34 pietro di piasi venice 1491 first edition to name the poem divina comedia 1555 thematic concerns edit the divine comedy can be described simply as an allegory each canto and the episodes therein can contain many alternative meanings dante s allegory however is more complex and in explaining how to read the poem see the letter to cangrande 37 he outlines other levels of meaning besides the allegory the historical the moral the literal and the anagogical cf the four senses of scripture the structure of the poem is also quite complex with mathematical and numerological patterns distributed throughout the work particularly threes and nines the poem is often lauded for its particularly human qualities dante s skillful delineation of the characters he encounters in hell purgatory and paradise his bitter denunciations of florentine and italian politics and his powerful poetic imagination dante s use of real characters according to dorothy sayers in her introduction to her translation of the inferno allows dante the freedom of not having to involve the reader in description and allows him to make room in his poem for the discussion of a great many subjects of the utmost importance thus widening its range and increasing its variety 38 dante called the poem comedy the adjective divine was added later in the 16th century because poems in the ancient world were classified as high tragedy or low comedy 39 low poems had happy endings and were written in everyday language whereas high poems treated more serious matters and were written in an elevated style dante was one of the first in the middle ages to write of a serious subject the redemption of humanity in the low and vulgar italian language and not the latin one might expect for such a serious topic boccaccio s account that an early version of the poem was begun by dante in latin is still controversial 40 41 scientific themes edit although the divine comedy is primarily a religious poem discussing sin virtue and theology dante also discusses several elements of the science of his day this mixture of science with poetry has received both praise and criticism over the centuries 42 the purgatorio repeatedly refers to the implications of a spherical earth such as the different stars visible in the southern hemisphere the altered position of the sun and the various time zones of the earth for example at sunset in purgatory it is midnight at the ebro dawn in jerusalem and noon on the river ganges 43 just as there where its maker shed his blood the sun shed its first rays and ebro lay beneath high libra and the ninth hour s rays were scorching ganges waves so here the sun stood at the point of day s departure when god s angel happy showed himself to us 44 dante travels through the centre of the earth in the inferno and comments on the resulting change in the direction of gravity in canto xxxiv lines 76 120 a little earlier xxxiii 102 105 he queries the existence of wind in the frozen inner circle of hell since it has no temperature differentials 45 galileo galilei s copy of the first giolito edition of the poem 1555 inevitably given its setting the paradiso discusses astronomy extensively but in the ptolemaic sense the paradiso also discusses the importance of the experimental method in science with a detailed example in lines 94 105 of canto ii yet an experiment were you to try it could free you from your cavil and the source of your arts course springs from experiment taking three mirrors place a pair of them at equal distance from you set the third midway between those two but farther back then turning toward them at your back have placed a light that kindles those three mirrors and returns to you reflected by them all although the image in the farthest glass will be of lesser size there you will see that it must match the brightness of the rest paradiso canto ii 46 a briefer example occurs in canto xv of the purgatorio lines 16 21 where dante points out that both theory and experiment confirm that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection other references to science in the paradiso include descriptions of clockwork in canto xxiv lines 13 18 and thales theorem about triangles in canto xiii lines 101 102 galileo galilei is known to have lectured on the inferno and it has been suggested that the poem may have influenced some of galileo s own ideas regarding mechanics 47 influences edit this article is part of the series on the italian language italo dalmatian languages tuscan florentine regional italian accademia della crusca enciclopedia treccani history veronese riddle placiti cassinesi sicilian school dolce stil novo the divine comedy pontifical academy of arcadia italian purism the last letters of jacopo ortis the betrothed literature and other culture literature music philosophy poetry comics italophilia grammar verb conjugation alphabet orthography braille phonology syntactic gemination tuscan gorgia v t e dante reading the divine comedy at the court of guido novello painting by andrea pierini 1850 palazzo pitti florence classical edit without access to the works of homer dante used virgil lucan ovid and statius as the models for the style history and mythology of the comedy 48 this is most obvious in the case of virgil who appears as a mentor character throughout the first two canticles and who has his epic the aeneid praised with language dante reserves elsewhere for scripture 49 ovid is given less explicit praise in the poem but besides virgil dante uses ovid as a source more than any other poet mostly through metaphors and fantastical episodes based on those in the metamorphoses 50 less influential than either of the two are statius and lucan the latter of whom has only been given proper recognition as a source in the divine comedy in the twentieth century 51 besides dante s fellow poets the classical figure that most influenced the comedy is aristotle dante built up the philosophy of the comedy with the works of aristotle as a foundation just as the scholastics used aristotle as the basis for their thinking dante knew aristotle directly from latin translations of his works and indirectly from quotations in the works of albertus magnus 52 dante even acknowledges aristotle s influence explicitly in the poem specifically when virgil justifies the inferno s structure by citing the nicomachean ethics 53 in the same canto virgil draws on cicero s de officiis to explain why sins of the intellect are worse than sins of violence a key point that would be explored from canto xviii to the end of the inferno 54 christian edit the divine comedy s language is often derived from the phraseology of the vulgate this was the only translation of the bible dante had access to as it was one the vast majority of scribes were willing to copy during the middle ages this includes five hundred or so direct quotes and references dante derives from the bible or his memory of it dante also treats the bible as a final authority on any matter including on subjects scripture only approaches allegorically 55 the divine comedy is also a product of scholasticism especially as expressed by st thomas aquinas 56 57 this influence is most pronounced in the paradiso where the text s portrayals of god the beatific vision and substantial forms all align with scholastic doctrine 58 it is also in the paradiso that aquinas and fellow scholastic st bonaventure appear as characters introducing dante to all of heaven s wisest souls consequently the divine comedy has been called the summa in verse 59 despite all this there are issues on which dante diverges from the scholastic doctrine such as in his unbridled praise for poetry 60 the divine comedy belongs to the genre of katabasis 61 and was influenced by the fourth century apocalypse of paul which was an earlier work of katabasis 62 63 islamic edit dante lived in a europe of substantial literary and philosophical contact with the muslim world encouraged by such factors as averroism averoìs che l gran comento feo commedia inferno iv 144 meaning averroes who wrote the great comment and the patronage of alfonso x of castile of the twelve wise men dante meets in canto x of the paradiso thomas aquinas and even more so siger of brabant were strongly influenced by arabic commentators on aristotle 64 medieval christian mysticism also shared the neoplatonic influence of sufis such as ibn arabi philosopher frederick copleston argued in 1950 that dante s respectful treatment of averroes avicenna and siger of brabant indicates his acknowledgement of a considerable debt to islamic philosophy 64 in 1919 miguel asín palacios a spanish scholar and a catholic priest published la escatología musulmana en la divina comedia islamic eschatology in the divine comedy an account of parallels between early islamic philosophy and the divine comedy palacios argued that dante derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter from the spiritual writings of ibn arabi and from the isra and mi raj or night journey of muhammad to heaven the latter is described in the ahadith and the kitab al miraj translated into latin in 1264 or shortly before 65 as liber scalae machometi the book of muhammad s ladder and has significant similarities to the paradiso such as a sevenfold division of paradise although this is not unique to the kitab al miraj or islamic cosmology 66 many scholars have not been satisfied that dante was influenced by the kitab al miraj the 20th century orientalist francesco gabrieli expressed scepticism regarding the claimed similarities and the lack of evidence of a vehicle through which it could have been transmitted to dante 67 the italian philologist maria corti pointed out that during his stay at the court of alfonso x dante s mentor brunetto latini met bonaventura de siena a tuscan who had translated the kitab al miraj from arabic into latin corti speculates that brunetto may have provided a copy of that work to dante 68 rené guénon a sufi convert and scholar of ibn arabi confirms in the esoterism of dante the theory of the islamic influence direct or indirect on dante 69 palacios theory that dante was influenced by ibn arabi was satirised by the turkish academic orhan pamuk in his novel the black book 70 in addition to that it has been claimed that risālat al ghufrān the epistle of forgiveness a satirical work mixing arabic poetry and prose written by abu al ʿalaʾ al maʿarri around 1033 ce had an influence on or even inspired dante s divine comedy 71 72 criticism and textual history edit a detail from one of sandro botticelli s illustrations for inferno canto xviii 1480s silverpoint on parchment completed in pen and ink critical reception of the divine comedy has varied considerably prior to its universal renown today although recognised as a masterpiece in the centuries immediately following its publication 73 the work largely fell into obscurity during the enlightenment with some notable exceptions vittorio alfieri antoine de rivarol who translated the inferno into french and giambattista vico who in the scienza nuova and in the giudizio su dante inaugurated what would later become the romantic reappraisal of dante juxtaposing him to homer 74 the comedy was rediscovered in the english speaking world by william blake who illustrated several passages of the epic and the romantic writers of the 19th century later authors such as t s eliot ezra pound samuel beckett c s lewis and james joyce have drawn on it for inspiration the poet henry wadsworth longfellow was its first american translator 75 and modern poets including seamus heaney 76 robert pinsky john ciardi w s merwin and stanley lombardo have also produced translations of all or parts of the book in russia beyond alexander pushkin s translation of a few tercets 77 osip mandelstam s late poetry has been said to bear the mark of a tormented meditation on the comedy 78 in 1934 mandelstam gave a modern reading of the poem in his labyrinthine conversation on dante 79 erich auerbach said dante was the first writer to depict human beings as the products of a specific time place and circumstance as opposed to mythic archetypes or a collection of vices and virtues concluding that this along with the fully imagined world of the divine comedy suggests that the divine comedy inaugurated literary realism and self portraiture in modern fiction 80 in t s eliot s estimation dante and shakespeare divide the world between them there is no third 81 for jorge luis borges the divine comedy was the best book literature has achieved 82 in the centuries since its publication the comedy has developed one of the most extensive critical traditions of any work of literature unmatched by any other secular work of western literature line by line commentaries have been written in languages across europe the americas and asia 83 significantly the comedy was among the first pieces of vernacular literature to receive serious critical attention prior to 1300 such detailed criticism was reserved for religious texts and works of classical literature 84 the comedy is considered one originator of the encyclopedic novel across multiple formulations of the concept 85 edward mendelson s coinage of the term contrasted dante s initial ostracism with his later importance to italian national identity comparing this to the culture building function of later encyclopedic authors like shakespeare cervantes or melville 86 english translations edit main article list of english translations of the divine comedy the divine comedy has been translated into english more times than any other language and new english translations of the divine comedy continue to be published regularly notable english translations of the complete poem include the following 87 year translator s notes 1805 1814 henry francis cary an older translation widely available online 1867 henry wadsworth longfellow unrhymed terzines the first u s translation raising american interest in the poem it is still widely available including online 1891 1892 charles eliot norton prose translation used by great books of the western world available online in three parts hell purgatory paradise at project gutenberg 1933 1943 laurence binyon terza rima translated with assistance from ezra pound used in the portable dante viking 1947 1949 1962 dorothy l sayers translated for penguin classics intended for a wider audience and completed by barbara reynolds after sayers s death 1969 thomas g bergin cast in blank verse with illustrations by leonard baskin 88 1954 1970 john ciardi his inferno was 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