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brief outline can be found in levere 96 further explanation needed one textbook discussion from 1870 suggests that matter is what is made up of atoms 97 three divisions of matter are recognized in science masses molecules and atoms a mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses a molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity an atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties in 1909 the famous physicist j j thomson 1856 1940 wrote about the constitution of matter and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge 98 in the late 19th century with the discovery of the electron and in the early 20th century with the geiger marsden experiment discovery of the atomic nucleus and the birth of particle physics matter was seen as made up of electrons protons and neutrons interacting to form atoms there then developed an entire literature concerning the structure of matter ranging from the electrical structure in the early 20th century 99 to the more recent quark structure of matter introduced as early as 1992 by jacob with the remark understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics 100 further explanation needed in this connection physicists speak of matter fields and speak of particles as quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field 9 10 and here is a quote from de sabbata and gasperini with the word matter we denote in this context the sources of the interactions that is spinor fields like quarks and leptons which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter or scalar fields like the higgs particles which are used to introduced mass in a gauge theory and that however could be composed of more fundamental fermion fields 101 further explanation needed protons and neutrons however are not indivisible they can be divided into quarks and electrons are part of a particle family called leptons both quarks and leptons are elementary particles and were in 2004 seen by authors of an undergraduate text as being the fundamental constituents of matter 102 these quarks and leptons interact through four fundamental forces gravity electromagnetism weak interactions and strong interactions the standard model of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics but despite decades of efforts gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level it is only described by classical physics see quantum gravity and graviton 103 to the frustration of theoreticians like stephen hawking interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of force carrying particles such as photons between quarks and leptons 104 the force carrying particles are not themselves building blocks as one consequence mass and energy which to our present knowledge cannot be created or destroyed cannot always be related to matter which can be created out of non matter particles such as photons or even out of pure energy such as kinetic energy citation needed force mediators are usually not considered matter the mediators of the electric force photons possess energy see planck relation and the mediators of the weak force w and z bosons have mass but neither are considered matter either 105 however while these quanta are not considered matter they do contribute to the total mass of atoms subatomic particles and all systems that contain them 106 107 see also antimatter ambiplasma antihydrogen antiparticle particle accelerator cosmology cosmological constant friedmann equations motion physical ontology dark matter axion minimal supersymmetric standard model neutralino nonbaryonic dark matter scalar field dark matter philosophy atomism materialism physicalism substance theory other mass energy equivalence 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