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lements such as titanium or molybdenum 23 at high impact speed the density hardness and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates the use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the us uk and other countries during wars in the persian gulf and the balkans raised health questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil see gulf war syndrome 20 depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials while the metal itself is radioactive its high density makes it more effective than lead in halting radiation from strong sources such as radium 11 other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces as ballast for missile re entry vehicles and as a shielding material 12 due to its high density this material is found in inertial guidance systems and in gyroscopic compasses 12 depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals for its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost 24 the main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity uranium being only a weak alpha emitter during the later stages of world war ii the entire cold war and to a lesser extent afterwards uranium 235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons initially two major types of fission bombs were built a relatively simple device that uses uranium 235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium 239 derived from uranium 238 later a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission fusion bomb thermonuclear weapon was built that uses a plutonium based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion such bombs are jacketed in a non fissile unenriched uranium case and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process 25 civilian the main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel nuclear power plants one kilogram of uranium 235 can theoretically produce about 20 terajoules of energy 2 10 13 joules assuming complete fission as much energy as 1 5 million kilograms 1 500 metric tonnes of coal 10 commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3 uranium 235 10 the candu and magnox designs are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel fuel used for united states navy reactors is typically highly enriched in uranium 235 the exact values are classified in a breeder reactor uranium 238 can also be converted into plutonium 239 through the following reaction 12 238 92 u n 239 92 u γ β 239 93 np β 239 94 pu uranium glass glowing under uv light before and occasionally after the discovery of radioactivity uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes such as uranium glass and in fiestaware 26 the discovery and isolation of radium in uranium ore pitchblende by marie curie sparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium which was used to make glow in the dark paints for clock and aircraft dials 27 28 this left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium this waste product was diverted to the glazing industry making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant besides the pottery glazes uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green yellow mauve black blue red and other colors the uranium glaze on a ceramic artwork glowing under uv light uranium glass used as lead in seals in a vacuum capacitor uranium was also used in photographic chemicals especially uranium nitrate as a toner 12 in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs 29 to improve the appearance of dentures 30 and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron dense stains in transmission electron microscopy to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses isolated cell organelles and macromolecules the discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element the long half life of uranium 238 4 47 10 9 years makes it well suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types of radiometric dating including uranium thorium dating uranium lead dating and uranium uranium dating uranium metal is used for x ray targets in the making of high energy x rays 12 history pre discovery use the use of pitchblende uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 ad when it was used in the roman empire to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes 12 yellow glass with 1 uranium oxide was found in a roman villa on cape posillipo in the gulf of naples italy by r t gunther of the university of oxford in 1912 31 starting in the late middle ages pitchblende was extracted from the habsburg silver mines in joachimsthal bohemia now jáchymov in the czech republic in the ore mountains and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry 32 in the early 19th century the world s only known sources of uranium ore were these mines discovery the planet uranus which uranium is named after the discovery of the element is credited to the german chemist martin heinrich klaproth while he was working in his experimental laboratory in berlin in 1789 klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound likely sodium diuranate by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide 32 klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself in fact that powder was an oxide of uranium 32 33 he named the newly discovered element uranit after the planet uranus named after the primordial greek god of the sky which had been discovered eight years earlier by william herschel 34 he later renamed it uranium to conform to the naming standard 35 in 1841 eugène melchior péligot professor of analytical chemistry at the conservatoire national des arts et métiers central school of arts and manufactures in paris isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium 32 36 henri becquerel discovered radioactivity by exposing a photographic plate to uranium in 1896 henri becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896 17 becquerel made the discovery in paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt k 2 uo 2 so 4 2 potassium uranyl sulfate on top of an unexposed photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become fogged 37 he determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate during world war i when the central powers suffered a shortage of molybdenum to make artillery gun barrels and high speed tool steels they routinely used ferrouranium alloy as a substitute as it presents many of the same physical characteristics as molybdenum when this practice became known in 1916 the us government requested several prominent universities to research the use of uranium in manufacturing and metalwork tools made with these formulas remained in use for several decades 38 39 until the manhattan project and the cold war placed a large demand on uranium for fission research and weapon development fission research cuboids of uranium produced during the manhattan project a team led by enrico fermi in 1934 found that bombarding uranium with neutrons produces beta rays electrons or positrons from the elements produced see beta particle 40 the fission products were at first mistaken for new elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94 which the dean of the sapienza university of rome orso mario corbino named ausenium and hesperium respectively 41 42 43 44 the experiments leading to the discovery of uranium s ability to fission break apart into lighter elements and release binding energy were conducted by otto hahn and fritz strassmann 40 in hahn s laboratory in berlin lise meitner and her nephew physicist otto robert frisch published the physical explanation in february 1939 and named the process nuclear fission 45 soon afterward fermi hypothesized that fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939 and later work found that on average about 2 5 neutrons are released by each fission of uranium 235 40 fermi urged alfred o c nier to separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component and on 29 february 1940 nier used an instrument he built at the university of minnesota to separate the world s first uranium 235 sample in the tate laboratory using columbia university s cyclotron john dunning confirmed the sample to be the isolated fissile material on 1 march 46 further work found that the far more common uranium 238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium which like uranium 235 is also fissile by thermal neutrons these discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power despite fission having been discovered in germany the uranverein uranium club germany s wartime project to research nuclear power and or weapons was hampered by limited resources infighting the exile or non involvement of several prominent scientists in the field and several crucial mistakes such as failing to account for impurities in available graphite samples which made it appear less suitable as a neutron moderator than it is in reality germany s attempts to build a natural uranium heavy water reactor had not come close to reaching criticality by the time the americans reached haigerloch the site of the last german wartime reactor experiment 47 on 2 december 1942 as part of the manhattan project another team led by enrico fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self sustained nuclear chain reaction chicago pile 1 an initial plan using enriched uranium 235 was abandoned as it was as yet unavailable in sufficient quantities 48 working in a lab below the stands of stagg field at the university of chicago the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 360 tonnes of graphite 53 tonnes of uranium oxide and 5 5 tonnes of uranium metal most of which was supplied by westinghouse lamp plant in a makeshift production process 40 49 nuclear weaponry mushroom cloud over hiroshima after the dropping of the uranium fired little boy two types of atomic bomb were developed by the united states during world war ii a uranium based device codenamed little boy whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium and a plutonium based device see trinity test and fat man whose plutonium was derived from uranium 238 little boy became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over hiroshima japan on 6 august 1945 exploding with a yield equivalent to 12 500 tonnes of tnt the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50 000 buildings and killed about 75 000 people see atomic bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki 37 in 1943 the manhattan project contracted two private companies union carbide and chevron to quietly compile a survey of uranium deposits around the world as the survey results came in two geology professors studied the results and suggested general guidelines for new sources including uranium associated with gold mines in the rand area in south africa 50 initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world 51 reactors four light bulbs lit with electricity generated from the first artificial electricity producing nuclear reactor ebr i 1951 the x 10 graphite reactor at oak ridge national laboratory ornl in oak ridge tennessee formerly known as the clinton pile and x 10 pile was the world s second artificial nuclear reactor after enrico fermi s chicago pile and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation argonne national laboratory s experimental breeder reactor i located at the atomic energy commission s national reactor testing station near arco idaho became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 december 1951 52 initially four 150 watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility later the town of arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power generated by borax iii another reactor designed and operated by argonne national laboratory 53 54 the world s first commercial scale nuclear power station obninsk in the soviet union began generation with its reactor am 1 on 27 june 1954 other early nuclear power plants were calder hall in england which began generation on 17 october 1956 55 and the shippingport atomic power station in pennsylvania which began on 26 may 1958 nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine the uss nautilus in 1954 40 56 prehistoric naturally occurring fission main article natural nuclear fission reactor in 1972 french physicist francis perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the oklo mine in gabon africa collectively known as the oklo fossil reactors the ore deposit is 1 7 billion years old then uranium 235 constituted about 3 of uranium on earth 57 this is high enough to permit a sustained chain reaction if other supporting conditions exist the capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the health threatening nuclear waste products has been cited by the u s federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the yucca mountain nuclear waste repository 57 contamination and the cold war legacy u s and ussr russian nuclear weapons stockpiles 1945 2005 above ground nuclear tests by the soviet union and the united states in the 1950s and early 1960s and by france into the 1970s and 1980s 24 spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world 58 additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents 59 uranium miners have a higher incidence of cancer an excess risk of lung cancer among navajo uranium miners for example has been documented and linked to their occupation 60 the radiation exposure compensation act a 1990 law in the us required 100 000 in compassi...
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