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ts with th stopping and th fronting like african american vernacular and estuary english do not have the dental fricatives θ ð but replace them with dental or alveolar stops t d or labiodental fricatives f v 229 230 other changes affecting the phonology of local varieties are processes such as yod dropping yod coalescence and reduction of consonant clusters 231 page needed ga and rp vary in their pronunciation of historical r after a vowel at the end of a syllable in the syllable coda ga is a rhotic dialect meaning that it pronounces r at the end of a syllable but rp is non rhotic meaning that it loses r in that position english dialects are classified as rhotic or non rhotic depending on whether they elide r like rp or keep it like ga 232 there is complex dialectal variation in words with the open front and open back vowels æ ɑː ɒ ɔː these four vowels are only distinguished in rp australia new zealand and south africa in ga these vowels merge to three æ ɑ ɔ 233 and in canadian english they merge to two æ ɑ 234 orthography since the 9th century english has been written using the english alphabet which uses the latin script anglo saxon runes were previously used to write old english but only in short inscriptions the overwhelming majority of attested writings in old english are in the old english latin alphabet 33 english orthography is multi layered and complex with elements of french latin and greek spelling on top of the native germanic system 235 further complications have arisen through sound changes with which the orthography has not kept pace 50 compared to european languages for which official organisations have promoted spelling reforms english has spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to guess from knowing how a word is pronounced 236 there are also systematic spelling differences between british and american english these situations have prompted proposals for spelling reform in english 237 although letters and speech sounds do not have a one to one correspondence in standard english spelling spelling rules that take into account syllable structure phonetic changes in derived words and word accent are reliable for most english words 238 moreover standard english spelling shows etymological relationships between related words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence between pronunciation and spelling for example the words photograph photography and photographic 238 or the words electricity and electrical while few scholars agree with chomsky and halle 1968 that conventional english orthography is near optimal 235 there is a rationale for current english spelling patterns 239 the standard orthography of english is the most widely used writing system in the world 240 standard english spelling is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words into written clues of what meaningful units make up each word 241 readers of english can generally rely on the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly regular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds the letters b d f h j k l m n p r s t v w y z represent respectively the phonemes b d f h dʒ k l m n p r s t v w j z the letters c and g normally represent k and ɡ but there is also a soft c pronounced s and a soft g pronounced dʒ the differences in the pronunciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the following letters in standard english spelling digraphs used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences include ch for tʃ sh for ʃ th for θ or ð ng for ŋ qu for kw and ph for f in greek derived words the single letter x is generally pronounced as z in word initial position and as ks otherwise there are exceptions to these generalisations often the result of loanwords being spelled according to the spelling patterns of their languages of origin 238 or residues of proposals by scholars in the early period of modern english to follow the spelling patterns of latin for english words of germanic origin 242 for the vowel sounds of the english language however correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are more irregular there are many more vowel phonemes in english than there are single vowel letters a e i o u y and very rarely w as a result some long vowels are often indicated by combinations of letters like the oa in boat the ow in how and the ay in stay or the historically based silent e as in note and cake 239 the consequence of this complex orthographic history is that learning to read and write can be challenging in english it can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of english than of many other languages including italian spanish and german 243 nonetheless there is an advantage for learners of english reading in learning the specific sound symbol regularities that occur in the standard english spellings of commonly used words 238 such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in english 244 245 making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in english may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write english 246 english writing also includes a system of punctuation marks that is similar to those used in most alphabetic languages around the world the purpose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding a text and to indicate features important for reading a text aloud 247 grammar typical for an indo european language english grammar follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment unlike other indo european languages english has largely abandoned the inflectional case system in favour of analytic constructions only the personal pronouns retain morphological case more strongly than any other word class english distinguishes at least seven major word classes verbs nouns adjectives adverbs determiners including articles prepositions and conjunctions some analyses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns and subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordinators and add the class of interjections 248 english also has a rich set of auxiliary verbs such as have and do expressing the categories of mood and aspect questions are marked by do support wh movement fronting of question words beginning with wh and word order inversion with some verbs 249 some traits typical of germanic languages persist in english such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut i e changing the vowel of the stem as in the pairs speak spoke and foot feet and weak stems inflected through affixation such as love loved hand hands 250 vestiges of the case and gender system are found in the pronoun system he him who whom similarly traces of more complex verb conjugation are seen in the inflection of the copula verb to be 250 the seven word classes are exemplified in this sample sentence 251 det noun prep det noun conj det adj noun verb advb conj det noun verb the chairman of the committee and the loquacious politician clashed violently when the meeting started nouns and noun phrases english nouns are only inflected for number and possession new nouns can be formed through derivation or compounding they are semantically divided into proper nouns names and common nouns common nouns are in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns and grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns 252 most count nouns are inflected for plural number through the use of the plural suffix s but a few nouns have irregular plural forms mass nouns can only be pluralised through the use of a count noun classifier e g one loaf of bread two loaves of bread 253 regular plural formation singular cat dog plural cats dogs irregular plural formation singular man woman foot fish ox knife mouse plural men women feet fish oxen knives mice possession can be expressed either by the possessive enclitic s also traditionally called a genitive suffix or by the preposition of historically the s possessive has been used for animate nouns whereas the of possessive has been reserved for inanimate nouns today this distinction is less clear and many speakers use s also with inanimates orthographically the possessive s is separated from a singular noun with an apostrophe if the noun is plural formed with s the apostrophe follows the s 249 possessive constructions with s the woman s husband s child with of the child of the husband of the woman nouns can form noun phrases nps where they are the syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as determiners quantifiers conjunctions or adjectives 254 noun phrases can be short such as the man composed only of a determiner and a noun they can also include modifiers such as adjectives e g red tall all and specifiers such as determiners e g the that but they can also tie together several nouns into a single long np using conjunctions such as and or prepositions such as with e g the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny wife with the spectacles this np uses conjunctions prepositions specifiers and modifiers regardless of length an np functions as a syntactic unit 249 for example the possessive enclitic can in cases which do not lead to ambiguity follow the entire noun phrase as in the president of india s wife where the enclitic follows india and not president the class of determiners is used to specify the noun they precede in terms of definiteness where the marks a definite noun and a or an marks an indefinite one a definite noun is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the interlocutor whereas an indefinite noun is not specified as being previously known quantifiers which include one many some and all are used to specify the noun in terms of quantity or number the noun must agree with the number of the determiner e g one man sg but all men pl determiners are the first constituents in a noun phrase 255 adjectives english adjectives are words such as good big interesting and canadian that most typically modify nouns denoting characteristics of their referents e g a red car as modifiers they come before the nouns they modify and after determiners 256 english adjectives also function as predicative complements e g the child is happy 257 in modern english adjectives are not inflected so as to agree in form with the noun they modify as in most other indo european languages for example in the phrases the slender boy and many slender girls the adjective slender does not change form to agree with either the number or gender of the noun 258 some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison with the positive degree unmarked the suffix er marking the comparative and est marking the superlative a small boy the boy is smaller than the girl that boy is the smallest some adjectives have irregular suppletive comparative and superlative forms such as good better and best other adjectives have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions with the adverb more marking the comparative and most marking the superlative happier or more happy the happiest or most happy 259 there is some variation among speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or periphrastic comparison and some studies have shown a tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more common at the expense of the inflected form 260 determiners english determiners are words such as the each many some and which occurring most typically in noun phrases before the head nouns and any modifiers and marking the noun phrase as definite or indefinite 261 they often agree with the noun in number they do not typically inflect for degree of comparison pronouns case and person english pronouns conserve many traits of case and gender inflection the personal pronouns retain a difference between subjective and objective case in most persons i me he him she her we us they them as well as an animateness distinction in the third person singular distinguishing it from the three sets of animate third person singular pronouns and an optional gender distinction in the animate third person singular distinguishing between feminine she her epicene they them and masculine he him 262 263 the subjective case corresponds to the old english nominative case and the objective case is used in the sense both of the previous accusative case for a patient or direct object of a transitive verb and of the old english dative case for a recipient or indirect object of a transitive verb 264 265 the subjective is used when the pronoun is the subject of a finite clause otherwise the objective is used 266 while grammarians such as henry sweet 267 and otto jespersen 268 noted that the english cases did not correspond to the traditional latin based system some contemporary grammars including the cambridge grammar of the english language retain traditional nominative and accusative labels for the cases 269 possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent forms the dependent form functions as a determiner specifying a noun as in my chair while the independent form can stand alone as if it were a noun e g the chair is mine 270 grammatical person in english no longer distinguishes between formal and informal pronouns of address with the second person singular familiar pronoun thou that previously existed in the language having fallen almost entirely out of use by the 18th century 271 both the second and third persons share pronouns between the plural and singular plural and singular are always identical you your yours in the second person except in the reflexive form yourself yourselves in most dialects some dialects have introduced innovative second person plural pronouns such as y all found in southern american english and african american vernacular english youse found in australian english or ye in hiberno english in the third person the they them series of pronouns they them their theirs themselves are used in both plural and singular and are the only pronouns available for the plural in the singular the they them series sometimes with the addition of the singular specific reflexive form themself serve as a gender neutral set of pronouns these pronouns are becoming more accepted especially as part of lgbtq culture 262 272 273 english personal pronouns person subjective case objective case dependent possessive independent possessive reflexive 1st singular i me my mine myself 2nd singular you you your yours yourself 3rd singular he she it they him her it them his her its their his hers its theirs himself herself itself themself themselves 1st plural we us our ours ourselves 2nd plural you you your yours yourselves 3rd plural they them their theirs themselves pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or anaphorically a deictic pronoun points to some person or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation for example the pronoun i identifies the speaker and the pronoun you the...
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