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latitude very small minor 2 to 3 degrees of latitude small 3 to 6 degrees of latitude medium average normal 6 to 8 degrees of latitude large over 8 degrees of latitude very large 127 though large hurricane size does not imply strength which is based on sustained wind measurements it can mean that more people are exposed to its hazards 128 there are a variety of metrics commonly used to measure storm size the most common metrics include the radius of maximum wind the radius of 34 knot 17 m s 63 km h 39 mph wind i e gale force the radius of outermost closed isobar roci and the radius of vanishing wind 129 130 an additional metric is the radius at which the cyclone s relative vorticity field decreases to 1 10 5 s 1 124 on earth tropical cyclones span a large range of sizes from 100 2 000 km 62 1 243 mi as measured by the radius of vanishing wind they are largest on average in the northwest pacific ocean basin and smallest in the northeastern pacific ocean basin 131 if the radius of outermost closed isobar is less than two degrees of latitude 222 km 138 mi then the cyclone is very small or a midget a radius of 3 6 latitude degrees 333 670 km 207 416 mi is considered average sized very large tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees 888 km 552 mi 127 observations indicate that size is only weakly correlated to variables such as storm intensity i e maximum wind speed radius of maximum wind latitude and maximum potential intensity 130 131 typhoon tip is the largest cyclone on record with tropical storm force winds 2 170 km 1 350 mi in diameter the smallest storm on record is tropical storm marco of 2008 which generated tropical storm force winds only 37 km 23 mi in diameter 132 movement the movement of a tropical cyclone i e its track is typically approximated as the sum of two terms steering by the background environmental wind and beta drift 133 some tropical cyclones can move across large distances such as hurricane john the second longest lasting tropical cyclone on record which traveled 13 280 km 8 250 mi the longest track of any northern hemisphere tropical cyclone over its 31 day lifespan in 1994 134 135 136 environmental steering environmental steering is the primary influence on the motion of tropical cyclones 137 it represents the movement of the storm due to prevailing winds and other wider environmental conditions similar to leaves carried along by a stream 138 physically the winds or flow field in the vicinity of a tropical cyclone may be treated as having two parts the flow associated with the storm itself and the large scale background flow of the environment 137 tropical cyclones can be treated as local maxima of vorticity suspended within the large scale background flow of the environment 139 in this way tropical cyclone motion may be represented to first order as advection of the storm by the local environmental flow 140 this environmental flow is termed the steering flow and is the dominant influence on tropical cyclone motion 137 the strength and direction of the steering flow can be approximated as a vertical integration of the winds blowing horizontally in the cyclone s vicinity weighted by the altitude at which those winds are occurring because winds can vary with height determining the steering flow precisely can be difficult the pressure altitude at which the background winds are most correlated with a tropical cyclone s motion is known as the steering level 139 the motion of stronger tropical cyclones is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a thicker portion of troposphere compared to weaker tropical cyclones whose motion is more correlated with the background flow averaged across a narrower extent of the lower troposphere 141 when wind shear and latent heat release is present tropical cyclones tend to move towards regions where potential vorticity is increasing most quickly 142 climatologically tropical cyclones are steered primarily westward by the east to west trade winds on the equatorial side of the subtropical ridge a persistent high pressure area over the world s subtropical oceans 138 in the tropical north atlantic and northeast pacific oceans the trade winds steer tropical easterly waves westward from the african coast toward the caribbean sea north america and ultimately into the central pacific ocean before the waves dampen out 143 these waves are the precursors to many tropical cyclones within this region 144 in contrast in the indian ocean and western pacific in both hemispheres tropical cyclogenesis is influenced less by tropical easterly waves and more by the seasonal movement of the intertropical convergence zone and the monsoon trough 145 other weather systems such as mid latitude troughs and broad monsoon gyres can also influence tropical cyclone motion by modifying the steering flow 141 146 beta drift in addition to environmental steering a tropical cyclone will tend to drift poleward and westward a motion known as beta drift 147 this motion is due to the superposition of a vortex such as a tropical cyclone onto an environment in which the coriolis force varies with latitude such as on a sphere or beta plane 148 the magnitude of the component of tropical cyclone motion associated with the beta drift ranges between 1 3 m s 3 6 10 8 km h 2 2 6 7 mph and tends to be larger for more intense tropical cyclones and at higher latitudes it is induced indirectly by the storm itself as a result of feedback between the cyclonic flow of the storm and its environment 149 147 physically the cyclonic circulation of the storm advects environmental air poleward east of center and equatorial west of center because air must conserve its angular momentum this flow configuration induces a cyclonic gyre equatorward and westward of the storm center and an anticyclonic gyre poleward and eastward of the storm center the combined flow of these gyres acts to advect the storm slowly poleward and westward this effect occurs even if there is zero environmental flow 150 151 due to a direct dependence of the beta drift on angular momentum the size of a tropical cyclone can affect the influence of beta drift on its motion beta drift imparts a greater influence on the movement of larger tropical cyclones than that of smaller ones 152 153 multiple storm interaction main article fujiwhara effect a third component of motion that occurs relatively infrequently involves the interaction of multiple tropical cyclones when two cyclones approach one another their centers will begin orbiting cyclonically about a point between the two systems depending on their separation distance and strength the two vortices may simply orbit around one another or else may spiral into the center point and merge when the two vortices are of unequal size the larger vortex will tend to dominate the interaction and the smaller vortex will orbit around it this phenomenon is called the fujiwhara effect after sakuhei fujiwhara 154 interaction with the mid latitude westerlies see also westerlies storm track of typhoon ioke showing recurvature off the japanese coast in 2006 though a tropical cyclone typically moves from east to west in the tropics its track may shift poleward and eastward either as it moves west of the subtropical ridge axis or else if it interacts with the mid latitude flow such as the jet stream or an extratropical cyclone this motion termed recurvature commonly occurs near the western edge of the major ocean basins where the jet stream typically has a poleward component and extratropical cyclones are common 155 an example of tropical cyclone recurvature was typhoon ioke in 2006 156 effects main articles effects of tropical cyclones and tropical cyclone effects by region natural phenomena caused or worsened by tropical cyclones tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves heavy rain floods and high winds disrupting international shipping and at times causing shipwrecks 157 tropical cyclones stir up water leaving a cool wake behind them which causes the region to be less favorable for subsequent tropical cyclones 67 on land strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles buildings bridges and other outside objects turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles the storm surge or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones historically resulting in 90 of tropical cyclone deaths 158 cyclone mahina produced the highest storm surge on record 13 m 43 ft at bathurst bay queensland australia in march 1899 159 other ocean based hazards that tropical cyclones produce are rip currents and undertow these hazards can occur hundreds of kilometers hundreds of miles away from the center of a cyclone even if other weather conditions are favorable 160 161 the broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone and vertical wind shear at its periphery spawns tornadoes tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices which persist until landfall 162 hurricane ivan produced 120 tornadoes more than any other tropical cyclone 163 lightning activity is produced within tropical cyclones this activity is more intense within stronger storms and closer to and within the storm s eyewall 164 165 tropical cyclones can increase the amount of snowfall a region experiences by delivering additional moisture 166 wildfires can be worsened when a nearby storm fans their flames with its strong winds 167 168 effect on property and human life wind damage varies exponentially with wind speed so that small increases in wind strength can dramatically increase damage 169 damages rise by about a factor of four for every category increase in the saffir simpson scale 169 aftermath of hurricane ike in bolivar peninsula texas the number of 1 billion atlantic hurricanes almost doubled from the 1980s to the 2010s and inflation adjusted costs have increased more than elevenfold 170 the increases have been attributed to climate change and to greater numbers of people moving to coastal areas 170 tropical cyclones regularly affect the coastlines of most of earth s major bodies of water along the atlantic pacific and indian oceans tropical cyclones have caused significant destruction and loss of human life resulting in about 2 million deaths since the 19th century 171 large areas of standing water caused by flooding lead to infection as well as contributing to mosquito borne illnesses crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation 158 tropical cyclones significantly interrupt infrastructure leading to power outages bridge and road destruction and the hampering of reconstruction efforts 158 172 173 winds and water from storms can damage or destroy homes buildings and other manmade structures 174 175 tropical cyclones destroy agriculture kill livestock and prevent access to marketplaces for both buyers and sellers both of these result in financial losses 176 177 178 powerful cyclones that make landfall moving from the ocean to over land are some of the most powerful although that is not always the case an average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide with 47 reaching hurricane or typhoon strength and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones super typhoons or major hurricanes at least of category 3 intensity 179 africa in africa tropical cyclones can originate from tropical waves generated over the sahara desert 180 or otherwise strike the horn of africa and southern africa 181 182 cyclone idai in march 2019 hit central mozambique becoming the deadliest tropical cyclone on record in africa with 1 302 fatalities and damage estimated at us 2 2 billion 183 184 réunion island located east of southern africa experiences some of the wettest tropical cyclones on record in january 1980 cyclone hyacinthe produced 6 083 mm 239 5 in of rain over 15 days which was the largest rain total recorded from a tropical cyclone on record 185 186 187 asia in asia tropical cyclones from the indian and pacific oceans regularly affect some of the most populated countries on earth in 1970 a cyclone struck bangladesh then known as east pakistan producing a 6 1 m 20 ft storm surge that killed at least 300 000 people this made it the deadliest tropical cyclone on record 188 in october 2019 typhoon hagibis struck the japanese island of honshu and inflicted us 15 billion in damage making it the costliest storm on record in japan 189 the islands that comprise oceania from australia to french polynesia are routinely affected by tropical cyclones 190 191 192 in indonesia a cyclone struck the island of flores in april 1973 killing 1 653 people making it the deadliest tropical cyclone recorded in the southern hemisphere 193 194 north and south america atlantic and pacific hurricanes regularly affect north america in the united states hurricanes katrina in 2005 and harvey in 2017 are the country s costliest ever natural disasters with monetary damage estimated at us 125 billion katrina struck louisiana and largely destroyed the city of new orleans 195 196 while harvey caused significant flooding in southeastern texas after it dropped 60 58 in 1 539 mm of rainfall this was the highest rainfall total on record in the country 196 the caribbean islands are regularly hit by hurricanes which have caused multiple humanitarian crises in haiti since 2004 due in part to the lack of infrastructure and high population density in urban areas 197 198 in 2004 hurricane jeanne caused severe flooding and mudslides and a total estimated 3 006 deaths 199 more recently in 2016 hurricane matthew caused us 2 8 billion in damages killing an estimated 674 people 200 201 the northern portion of south america experiences occasional tropical cyclones with 173 fatalities from tropical storm bret in august 1993 202 203 the south atlantic ocean is generally inhospitable to the formation of a tropical storm 204 however in march 2004 hurricane catarina struck southeastern brazil as the first hurricane on record in the south atlantic ocean 205 europe europe is rarely affected by tropical cyclones however the continent regularly encounters storms after they transitioned into extratropical cyclones only one tropical depression vince in 2005 struck spain 206 and only one subtropical cyclone subtropical storm alpha in 2020 struck portugal 207 occasionally there are tropical like cyclones in the mediterranean sea 208 environmental effects although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect as they may bring much needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions 209 their precipitation may also alleviate drought conditions by restoring soil moisture though one study focused on the southeastern united states suggested tropical cyclones did not offer significant drought recovery 210 211 212 tropical cyclones also help maintain the global heat balance by moving warm moist tropical air to the ...
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