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osition over the south pole the atlantic ocean widened and later in the era 2 8 million years ago south america became attached to north america with the isthmus of panama india collided with asia 55 to 45 million years ago creating the himalayas arabia collided with eurasia closing the tethys ocean and creating the zagros mountains around 35 million years ago 33 the break up of gondwana in late cretaceous and cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large african rivers including the congo niger nile orange limpopo and zambezi 34 climate edit in the cretaceous the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today this continued for the first 10 million years of the paleocene culminating in the paleocene eocene thermal maximum about 55 5 million years ago around 50 million years ago earth entered a period of long term cooling this was mainly due to the collision of india with eurasia which caused the rise of the himalayas the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with co 2 in the air causing a long term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere around 35 million years ago permanent ice began to build up on antarctica 35 the cooling trend continued in the miocene with relatively short warmer periods when south america became attached to north america creating the isthmus of panama around 2 8 million years ago the arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the humboldt and gulf stream currents 36 eventually leading to the glaciations of the quaternary ice age the current interglacial of which is the holocene epoch recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency oxygen isotope record and tectonic plate subduction rate which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary climate and plate tectonic activity shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years timescale in the cenozoic era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of 13 myr during most of the time 37 the levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the cenozoic 38 life edit restoration of palaeotherium a paleogene relative of horses that lived in subtropical climates of europe during the eocene early in the cenozoic following the k pg event the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna including small mammals birds reptiles and amphibians from a geological perspective it did not take long for mammals to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the mesozoic 39 birds also diversified rapidly some flightless birds grew larger than humans these species are sometimes referred to as terror birds and were formidable predators mammals came to occupy almost every available niche both marine and terrestrial and some also grew very large attaining sizes not seen in most of today s terrestrial mammals the ranges of many cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled 40 during the cenozoic mammals proliferated from a few small simple generalised forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial marine and flying animals giving this period its other name the age of mammals the cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas the age of co dependent flowering plants and insects and the age of birds 41 grasses also played a very important role in this era shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them one group that diversified significantly in the cenozoic as well were the snakes evolving in the cenozoic the variety of snakes increased tremendously resulting in many colubrids following the evolution of their current primary prey source the rodents in the earlier part of the cenozoic the world was dominated by the gastornithid birds terrestrial crocodylians like pristichampsus large sharks such as otodus and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like uintatheres mesonychians and pantodonts but as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool other mammals took over the cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar including chalicotheres creodonts whales primates entelodonts sabre toothed cats mastodons and mammoths three toed horses giant rhinoceros like paraceratherium the rhinoceros like brontotheres various bizarre groups of mammals from south america such as the vaguely elephant like pyrotheres and the dog like marsupial relatives called borhyaenids and the monotremes and marsupials of australia mammal evolution in the cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes 42 43 cenozoic calcareous nannoplankton experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the eocene and neogene diatoms in contrast experienced major diversification over the eocene especially at high latitudes as the world s oceans cooled 44 diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the eocene oligocene boundary a second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the middle and late miocene 45 see also edit earth sciences portal cretaceous paleogene boundary k t boundary geologic time scale late cenozoic ice age references edit gallipoli map 2nd ed 1 100 000 carta geologica d italia scala 1 100 000 dipartimento per il servizio geologico d italia 1968 sheet foglio 214 retrieved 31 may 2025 cenozoic lexico uk english dictionary oxford university press archived from the original on 23 november 2021 cenozoic merriam webster com dictionary merriam webster oclc 1032680871 cenozoic online etymology dictionary phillips john 1840 palæozoic series penny cyclopaedia of the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge vol 17 london england charles knight and co pp 153 154 from pp 153 154 as many systems or combinations of organic forms as are clearly traceable in the stratified crust of the globe so many corresponding terms as palæozoic mesozoic kainozoic c may be made wilmarth mary grace 1925 bulletin 769 the geologic time classification of the united states geological survey compared with other classifications accompanied by the original definitions of era period and epoch terms washington d c u s u s government printing office p 8 the evolution of the spelling of cenozoic is reviewed in harland w brian armstrong richard l cox allen v craig lorraine e smith david g smith alan g 1990 the chronostratic scale a geologic time scale 1989 cambridge england u k cambridge university press p 31 isbn 978 0 521 38765 1 although john phillips originally spelled it as kainozoic in 1840 he spelled it cainozoic a year later phillips john 1841 figures and descriptions of the palæozoic fossils of cornwall devon and west somerset london england u k longman brown green longmans p 160 cainozoic dictionary com unabridged online n d cainozoic oxford english dictionary 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falkowski paul g katz miriam e knoll andrew h quigg antonietta raven john a schofield oscar taylor f j r 16 july 2004 the evolution of modern eukaryotic phytoplankton science 305 5682 354 360 bibcode 2004sci 305 354f doi 10 1126 science 1095964 issn 0036 8075 pmid 15256663 retrieved 8 march 2024 further reading edit prothero donald r 2006 after the dinosaurs the age of mammals bloomington indiana indiana university press isbn 978 0 253 34733 6 external links edit wikisource has the text of the 1911 encyclopædia britannica article cainozoic wikimedia commons has media related to cenozoic western australian museum the age of the mammals cenozoic chronostratigraphy scale v t e geological history of earth cenozoic era present 66 0 ma quaternary present 2 58 ma holocene present 11 7 ka pleistocene 11 7 ka 2 58 ma neogene 2 58 23 0 ma pliocene 2 59 5 33 ma miocene 5 33 23 0 ma paleogene 23 0 66 0 ma oligocene 23 0 33 9 ma eocene 33 9 56 0 ma paleocene 56 0 66 0 ma mesozoic era 66 0 252 ma cretaceous 66 0 145 ma late 66 0 1...
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