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g those related to morality while genetics play a role in shaping certain aspects of moral behavior morality itself is a multifaceted concept that encompasses cultural societal and personal influences as well psychology edit main article moral psychology see also kohlberg s stages of moral development and jean piaget education and development of morality kohlberg s model of moral development in modern moral psychology morality is sometimes considered to change through personal development several psychologists have produced theories on the development of morals usually going through stages of different morals lawrence kohlberg jean piaget and elliot turiel have cognitive developmental approaches to moral development to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains in the ethics of care approach established by carol gilligan moral development occurs in the context of caring mutually responsive relationships which are based on interdependence particularly in parenting but also in social relationships generally 50 social psychologists such as martin hoffman and jonathan haidt emphasize social and emotional development based on biology such as empathy moral identity theorists such as william damon and mordechai nisan see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self identity that is defined by moral purposes this moral self identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as sigmund freud who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super ego as guilt shame avoidance theories of moral development therefore tend to regard it as positive moral development the higher stages are morally higher though this naturally involves a circular argument the higher stages are better because they are higher but the better higher because they are better as an alternative to viewing morality as an individual trait some sociologists as well as social and discursive psychologists have taken upon themselves to study the in vivo aspects of morality by examining how persons conduct themselves in social interaction 51 52 53 54 a new study analyses the common perception of a decline in morality in societies worldwide and throughout history adam m mastroianni and daniel t gilbert present a series of studies indicating that the perception of moral decline is an illusion and easily produced with implications for misallocation of resources underuse of social support and social influence to begin with the authors demonstrate that people in no less than 60 nations hold the belief that morality is deteriorating continuously and this conviction has been present for the last 70 years subsequently they indicate that people ascribe this decay to the declining morality of individuals as they age and the succeeding generations thirdly the authors demonstrate that people s evaluations of the morality of their peers have not decreased over time indicating that the belief in moral decline is an illusion lastly the authors explain a basic psychological mechanism that uses two well established phenomena distorted exposure to information and distorted memory of information to cause the illusion of moral decline the authors present studies that validate some of the predictions about the circumstances in which the perception of moral decline is attenuated eliminated or reversed e g when participants are asked about the morality of people closest to them or people who lived before they were born 55 moral cognition edit moral cognition refers to cognitive processes implicated in moral judgment and decision making and moral action it consists of several domain general cognitive processes ranging from perception of a morally salient stimulus to reasoning when faced with a moral dilemma while there is not a single cognitive faculty dedicated exclusively to moral cognition 56 57 characterizing the contributions of domain general processes to moral behavior is a critical scientific endeavor to understand how morality works and how it can be improved 58 cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists investigate the inputs to these cognitive processes and their interactions as well as how these contribute to moral behavior by running controlled experiments 59 in these experiments putatively moral versus nonmoral stimuli are compared to each other while controlling for other variables such as content or working memory load often the differential neural response to specifically moral statements or scenes are examined using functional neuroimaging experiments critically the specific cognitive processes that are involved depend on the prototypical situation that a person encounters 60 for instance while situations that require an active decision on a moral dilemma may require active reasoning an immediate reaction to a shocking moral violation may involve quick affect laden processes nonetheless certain cognitive skills such as being able to attribute mental states beliefs intents desires emotions to oneself and others is a common feature of a broad range of prototypical situations in line with this a meta analysis found overlapping activity between moral emotion and moral reasoning tasks suggesting a shared neural network for both tasks 61 the results of this meta analysis however also demonstrated that the processing of moral input is affected by task demands regarding the issues of morality in video games some scholars believe that because players appear in video games as actors they maintain a distance between their sense of self and the role of the game in terms of imagination therefore the decision making and moral behavior of players in the game are not representing player s moral dogma 62 it has been recently found that moral judgment consists in concurrent evaluations of three different components that align with precepts from three dominant moral theories virtue ethics deontology and consequentialism the character of a person agent component a their actions deed component d and the consequences brought about in the situation consequences component c 63 this implies that various inputs of the situation a person encounters affect moral cognition jonathan haidt distinguishes between two types of moral cognition moral intuition and moral reasoning moral intuition involves the fast automatic and affective processes that result in an evaluative feeling of good bad or like dislike without awareness of going through any steps conversely moral reasoning does involve conscious mental activity to reach a moral judgment moral reasoning is controlled and less affective than moral intuition when making moral judgments humans perform moral reasoning to support their initial intuitive feeling however there are three ways humans can override their immediate intuitive response the first way is conscious verbal reasoning for example examining costs and benefits the second way is reframing a situation to see a new perspective or consequence which triggers a different intuition finally one can talk to other people which illuminates new arguments in fact interacting with other people is the cause of most moral change 64 neuroscience edit see also science of morality and neuromorality the brain areas that are consistently involved when humans reason about moral issues have been investigated by multiple quantitative large scale meta analyses of the brain activity changes reported in the moral neuroscience literature 65 61 66 67 the neural network underlying moral decisions overlaps with the network pertaining to representing others intentions i e theory of mind and the network pertaining to representing others vicariously experienced emotional states i e empathy this supports the notion that moral reasoning is related to both seeing things from other persons points of view and to grasping others feelings these results provide evidence that the neural network underlying moral decisions is probably domain global i e there might be no such things as a moral module in the human brain and might be dissociable into cognitive and affective sub systems 65 cognitive neuroscientist jean decety thinks that the ability to recognize and vicariously experience what another individual is undergoing was a key step forward in the evolution of social behavior and ultimately morality 68 the inability to feel empathy is one of the defining characteristics of psychopathy and this would appear to lend support to decety s view 69 70 recently drawing on empirical research in evolutionary theory developmental psychology social neuroscience and psychopathy jean decety argued that empathy and morality are neither systematically opposed to one another nor inevitably complementary 71 72 brain areas edit areas of the brain hypothesized to be related to moral processing by the respective density of being described as such in scientific literature the ventromedial prefrontal cortex vmpfc in darkest steel blue is the area being specified most commonly an essential shared component of moral judgment involves the capacity to detect morally salient content within a given social context recent research implicated the salience network in this initial detection of moral content 73 the salience network responds to behaviorally salient events 74 and may be critical to modulate downstream default and frontal control network interactions in the service of complex moral reasoning and decision making processes the explicit making of moral right and wrong judgments coincides with activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex vmpc a region involved in valuation while intuitive reactions to situations containing implicit moral issues activates the temporoparietal junction area a region that plays a key role in understanding intentions and beliefs 75 73 stimulation of the vmpc by transcranial magnetic stimulation or neurological lesion has been shown to inhibit the ability of human subjects to take into account intent when forming a moral judgment according to such investigations tms did not disrupt participants ability to make any moral judgment on the contrary moral judgments of intentional harms and non harms were unaffected by tms to either the rtpj or the control site presumably however people typically make moral judgments of intentional harms by considering not only the action s harmful outcome but the agent s intentions and beliefs so why were moral judgments of intentional harms not affected by tms to the rtpj one possibility is that moral judgments typically reflect a weighted function of any morally relevant information that is available at the time based on this view when information concerning the agent s belief is unavailable or degraded the resulting moral judgment simply reflects a higher weighting of other morally relevant factors e g outcome alternatively following tms to the rtpj moral judgments might be made via an abnormal processing route that does not take belief into account on either account when belief information is degraded or unavailable moral judgments are shifted toward other morally relevant factors e g outcome for intentional harms and non harms however the outcome suggests the same moral judgment as to the intention thus the researchers suggest that tms to the rtpj disrupted the processing of negative beliefs for both intentional harms and attempted harms but the current design allowed the investigators to detect this effect only in the case of attempted harms in which the neutral outcomes did not afford harsh moral judgments on their own 76 similarly individuals with a lesion of the vmpc judge an action purely on its outcome and are unable to take into account the intent of that action 77 politics edit allegory with a portrait of a venetian senator allegory of the morality of earthly things attributed to tintoretto 1585 if morality is the answer to the question how ought we to live at the individual level politics can be seen as addressing the same question at the social level though the political sphere raises additional problems and challenges 78 it is therefore unsurprising that evidence has been found of a relationship between attitudes in morality and politics moral foundations theory authored by jonathan haidt and colleagues 79 80 has been used to study the differences between liberals and conservatives in this regard 25 81 haidt found that americans who identified as liberals tended to value care and fairness higher than loyalty respect and purity self identified conservative americans valued care and fairness less and the remaining three values more both groups gave care the highest over all weighting but conservatives valued fairness the lowest whereas liberals valued purity the lowest haidt also hypothesizes that the origin of this division in the united states can be traced to geo historical factors with conservatism strongest in closely knit ethnically homogeneous communities in contrast to port cities where the cultural mix is greater thus requiring more liberalism group morality develops from shared concepts and beliefs and is often codified to regulate behavior within a culture or community various defined actions come to be called moral or immoral individuals who choose moral action are popularly held to possess moral fiber whereas those who indulge in immoral behavior may be labeled as socially degenerate the continued existence of a group may depend on widespread conformity to codes of morality an inability to adjust moral codes in response to new challenges is sometimes credited with the demise of a community a positive example would be the function of cistercian reform in reviving monasticism a negative example would be the role of the dowager empress in the subjugation of china to european interests within nationalist movements there has been some tendency to feel that a nation will not survive or prosper without acknowledging one common morality regardless of its content political morality is also relevant to the behavior internationally of national governments and to the support they receive from their host population the sentience institute co founded by jacy reese anthis analyzes the trajectory of moral progress in society via the framework of an expanding moral circle 82 noam chomsky states that if we adopt the principle of universality if an action is right or wrong for others it is right or wrong for us those who do not rise to the minimal moral level of applying to themselves the standards they apply to others more stringent ones in fact plainly cannot be taken seriously when they speak of appropriateness of response or of right and wrong good and evil in fact one of them maybe the most elementary of moral principles is that of universality that is if something s right for me it s right for you if it s wrong for you it s wrong for me any moral code that is even worth looking at has that at its core somehow 83 re...
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