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to a roman armenia 226 227 page needed this interpretation is backed by the fact that all subsequent roman wars against parthia would aim at establishing a roman presence deep into parthia itself 228 it is possible that during the onset of trajan s military experience as a young tribune he had witnessed engagement with the parthians so any strategic vision was grounded in a tactical awareness of what was needed to tackle parthia 227 page needed course of the war edit an ad 116 inscription of the legio iv scythica found near the armenian capital artaxata mentioning trajan 229 the campaign was carefully planned in advance ten legions were concentrated in the eastern theatre since 111 the correspondence of pliny the younger witnesses to the fact that provincial authorities in bithynia had to organize supplies for passing troops and local city councils and their individual members had to shoulder part of the increased expenses by supplying troops themselves 230 the intended campaign therefore was immensely costly from its very beginning 165 trajan marched first on armenia deposed the parthian appointed king parthamasiris who was afterwards murdered while kept in the custody of roman troops in an unclear incident later described by fronto as a breach of roman good faith 231 and annexed it to the roman empire as a province receiving in passing the acknowledgement of roman hegemony by various tribes in the caucasus and on the eastern coast of the black sea a process that kept him busy until the end of 114 232 at the same time a roman column under the legate lusius quietus an outstanding cavalry general 233 who had signalled himself during the dacian wars by commanding a unit from his native mauretania 234 crossed the araxes river from armenia into media atropatene and the land of the mardians present day ghilan 235 it is possible that quietus campaign had as its goal the extending of the newer more defensible roman border eastwards towards the caspian sea and northwards to the foothills of the caucasus 236 this newer more rational frontier depended however on an increased permanent roman presence east of the euphrates 237 sestertius during 116 to commemorate trajan s parthian victories obverse bust of trajan with laurel crown caption imp caes nerv traiano optimo avg ger dac parthico p m tr p cos vi p p reverse trajan standing between prostrate allegories of armenia crowned with a tiara and the rivers tigris euphrates caption armenia et mesopotamia in potestatem p r redactae put under the authority of the roman people s c senatus consultus issued by the senate the chronology of subsequent events is uncertain but it is generally believed that early in 115 trajan launched a mesopotamian campaign marching down towards the taurus mountains in order to consolidate territory between the tigris and euphrates rivers he placed permanent garrisons along the way to secure the territory 238 while trajan moved from west to east lusius quietus moved with his army from the caspian sea towards the west both armies performing a successful pincer movement 239 whose apparent result was to establish a roman presence into the parthian empire proper 240 trajan took the northern mesopotamian cities of nisibis and batnae and organized a province of mesopotamia including the kingdom of osrhoene where king abgar vii submitted to trajan publicly 241 j as a roman protectorate 240 this process seems to have been completed at the beginning of 116 when coins were issued announcing that armenia and mesopotamia had been put under the authority of the roman people 242 165 the area between the khabur river and the mountains around singara seems to have been considered as the new frontier and as such received a road surrounded by fortresses 243 after wintering in antioch during 115 116 and according to literary sources barely escaping from a violent earthquake that claimed the life of one of the consuls marcus pedo virgilianus 244 245 trajan again took to the field in 116 with a view to the conquest of the whole of mesopotamia an overambitious goal that eventually backfired on the results of his entire campaign according to some modern historians the aim of the campaign of 116 was to achieve a pre emptive demonstration aiming not toward the conquest of parthia but for tighter roman control over the eastern trade route however the overall scarcity of manpower for the roman military establishment meant that the campaign was doomed from the start 246 it is noteworthy that no new legions were raised by trajan before the parthian campaign maybe because the sources of new citizen recruits were already over exploited 247 as far as the sources allow a description of this campaign it seems that one roman division crossed the tigris into adiabene sweeping south and capturing adenystrae a second followed the river south capturing babylon trajan himself sailed down the euphrates from dura europos where a triumphal arch was erected in his honour through ozogardana where he erected a tribunal still to be seen at the time of julian the apostate s campaigns in the same area having come to the narrow strip of land between the euphrates and the tigris he then dragged his fleet overland into the tigris capturing seleucia and finally the parthian capital of ctesiphon 248 249 he continued southward to the persian gulf when after escaping with his fleet a tidal bore on the tigris 250 he received the submission of athambelus the ruler of charax he declared babylon a new province of the empire and had his statue erected on the shore of the persian gulf 251 after which he sent the senate a laurelled letter declaring the war to be at a close and bemoaning that he was too old to go on any further and repeat the conquests of alexander the great 240 since charax was a de facto independent kingdom whose connections to palmyra were described above trajan s bid for the persian gulf may have coincided with palmyrene interests in the region 252 another hypothesis is that the rulers of charax had expansionist designs on parthian babylon giving them a rationale for alliance with trajan 253 the parthian city of susa was apparently also occupied by the romans 254 a coin of trajan found together with coins of the kushan ruler kanishka at the ahin posh buddhist monastery afghanistan caption imp caes ner traiano optimo avg ger dac according to late literary sources not backed by numismatic or inscriptional evidence a province of assyria was also proclaimed 255 apparently covering the territory of adiabene k some measures seem to have been considered regarding the fiscal administration of indian trade or simply about the payment of customs latin portoria on goods traded on the euphrates and tigris 256 252 it is possible that it was this streamlining of the administration of the newly conquered lands according to the standard pattern of roman provincial administration in tax collecting requisitions and the handling of local potentates prerogatives that triggered later resistance against trajan 257 according to some modern historians trajan might have busied himself during his stay on the persian gulf with ordering raids on the parthian coasts 258 as well as probing into extending roman suzerainty over the mountaineer tribes holding the passes across the zagros mountains into the iranian plateau eastward as well as establishing some sort of direct contact between rome and the kushan empire 259 no attempt was made to expand into the iranian plateau itself where the roman army with its relative weakness in cavalry would have been at a disadvantage 260 trajan left the persian gulf for babylon where he intended to offer sacrifice to alexander in the house where he had died in 323 bc 240 but a revolt led by sanatruces a nephew of the parthian king osroes i who had retained a cavalry force possibly strengthened by the addition of saka archers 261 imperilled roman positions in mesopotamia and armenia trajan sought to deal with this by forsaking direct roman rule in parthia proper at least partially 262 trajan sent two armies towards northern mesopotamia the first under lusius quietus recovered nisibis and edessa from the rebels probably having king abgarus deposed and killed in the process 262 with quietus probably earning the right to receive the honors of a senator of praetorian rank adlectus inter praetorios 263 the second army however under appius maximus santra probably a governor of macedonia was defeated and santra killed 264 later in 116 trajan with the assistance of quietus and two other legates marcus erucius clarus and tiberius julius alexander julianus l 264 defeated a parthian army in a battle where sanatruces was killed possibly with the assistance of osroes son and sanatruces cousin parthamaspates whom trajan wooed successfully 265 after re taking and burning seleucia trajan then formally deposed osroes putting parthamaspates on the throne as client ruler this event was commemorated in a coin as the reduction of parthia to client kingdom status rex parthis datus a king is given to the parthians 266 that done trajan retreated north in order to retain what he could of the new provinces of armenia where he had already accepted an armistice in exchange for surrendering part of the territory to sanatruces son vologeses 267 and mesopotamia it was at this point that trajan s health started to fail him the fortress city of hatra on the tigris in his rear continued to hold out against repeated roman assaults he was personally present at the siege and it is possible that he suffered a heat stroke while in the blazing heat 262 diaspora revolt edit main article diaspora revolt a statue of trajan luna marble and proconessian marble 2nd century ad from ostia antica at museo archeologico ostiense about this same time ad 116 117 jews in the eastern provinces of the roman empire egypt cyprus and cyrene which was likely the original trouble hotspot rebelled in what appears to have been an ethnic and religious uprising against the local populations later known as the diaspora revolt 268 additionally jewish communities in northern mesopotamia revolted likely as part of a broader resistance against roman occupation 269 trajan had to withdraw his army to suppress these revolts a move he considered a temporary setback he never returned to command delegating eastern operations to lusius quietus who was appointed governor of judaea in early 117 and likely dealt with jewish unrest there m quietus discharged his commissions successfully leading rabbinic sources to name the conflict in judaea the kitos war with kitus being a corruption of quietus 271 whether or not the diaspora revolt included judea proper or only the jewish eastern diaspora remains doubtful in the absence of clear epigraphic and archaeological evidence what is certain is that there was an increased roman military presence in judea at the time 272 quietus was promised a consulate n in the following year 118 for his victories but he was killed before this could occur during the bloody purge that opened hadrian s reign in which quietus and three other former consuls were sentenced to death after being tried on a vague charge of conspiracy by the secret court of the praetorian prefect attianus 274 it has been thought that quietus and his colleagues were executed on hadrian s direct orders for fear of their popular standing with the army and their close connections to trajan 267 275 in contrast the next prominent roman figure in charge of the repression of the jewish revolt the equestrian quintus marcius turbo who had dealt with the rebel leader from cyrene loukuas retained hadrian s trust eventually becoming his praetorian prefect 276 as all four consulars were senators of the highest standing and as such generally regarded as able to take imperial power capaces imperii hadrian seems to have decided to forestall these prospective rivals 277 death edit early in 117 trajan grew ill and set sail for italy his health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117 possibly acknowledged to the public by the display of a bronze portrait bust at the public baths of ancyra showing an aged and emaciated man though the identification with trajan is disputed 278 279 he reached selinus o where he suddenly died shortly before 11 august p according to a well established historical tradition trajan s ashes were placed within the small cella that still survives at the base of trajan s column in some modern scholarship his ashes were more likely interred near his column in a mausoleum temple or tomb built for his cult as a divus of the roman state 18 285 succession edit trajan in person could have lawfully nominated hadrian as his successor but dio claims that trajan s wife pompeia plotina assured hadrian s succession by keeping trajan s death a secret long enough for her to produce and sign a document attesting to hadrian s adoption as son and successor dio who tells this narrative offers his father the governor of cilicia apronianus as a source so his narrative may be based on contemporary rumour it may also reflect male roman displeasure that an empress let alone any woman could presume to meddle in rome s political affairs 286 hadrian had held an ambiguous position during trajan s reign after commanding legio i minervia during the dacian wars he had been relieved from front line duties at the decisive stage of the second dacian war being sent to govern the newly created province of pannonia inferior he had pursued a senatorial career without particular distinction and had not been officially adopted by trajan although he received from him decorations and other marks of distinction that made him hope for the succession 287 288 he received no post after his 108 consulate and no further honours other than being made archon eponymos for athens in 111 112 289 290 he probably did not take part in the parthian war literary sources relate that trajan had considered others such as the jurist lucius neratius priscus as heir 291 hadrian who was eventually entrusted with the governorship of syria at the time of trajan s death was trajan s cousin and was married to trajan s grandniece which all made him as good as heir designate 292 293 hadrian seems to have been well connected to the powerful and influential coterie of spanish senators at trajan s court through his ties to plotina and the prefect attianus 294 his refusal to sustain trajan s senatorial and expansionist policy during his own reign may account for the crass hostility shown him by literary sources 295 hadrian s first major act as emperor was to abandon mesopotamia as too costly and distant to defend and to restore armenia and osrhoene to parthian hegemony under rome s suzerainty 165 the parthian campaign had been an enormous setback to trajan s policy proof that rome had overstretched its capacity to sustain an ambitious program of conquest according to the historia augusta hadrian claimed to follow the precedent...
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