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nepal india burma peninsular malaysia and sumatra for the supposed medical powers of their horns and blood as of 2015 only 58 61 individuals remain in ujung kulon national park java indonesia the last known javan rhino in vietnam was reportedly killed for its horn in 2011 by vietnamese poachers now only java contains the last javan rhinos 55 56 57 58 sumatran main article sumatran rhinoceros the sumatran rhinoceros dicerorhinus sumatrensis is the smallest extant rhinoceros species as well as the one with the most hair it can be found at very high altitudes in borneo and sumatra because of habitat loss and poaching their numbers have declined and it has become the second most threatened rhinoceros about 275 sumatran rhinos are believed to remain there are three subspecies of sumatran rhinoceros the sumatran rhinoceros proper dicerorhinus sumatrensis sumatrensis the bornean rhinoceros dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni and the possibly extinct northern sumatran rhinoceros dicerorhinus sumatrensis lasiotis a mature rhino typically stands about 1 3 m 4 ft 3 in high at the shoulder has a length of 2 4 3 2 m 7 ft 10 in 10 ft 6 in and weighs around 700 kg 1 500 lb though the largest individuals have been known to weigh as much as 1 000 kilograms 2 200 lb like the african species it has two horns the larger is the front 25 79 centimetres 9 8 31 1 in with the smaller usually less than 10 centimetres 3 9 in long males have much larger horns than the females hair can range from dense the densest hair in young calves to sparse the color of these rhinos is reddish brown the body is short and has stubby legs the lip is prehensile sumatran rhinoceros once were spread across south east asia but now are on the verge of extinction confined to several parts of indonesia and malaysia by reproductive isolation citation needed it has been found through dna comparison that the sumatran rhinoceros is the most ancient extant rhinoceros and related to the extinct eurasian woolly rhino species coelodonta in 1994 alan rabinowitz publicly denounced governments non governmental organizations and other institutions for lacking in their attempts to conserve the sumatran rhinoceros to conserve it they would have to relocate them from small forests to breeding programs that could monitor their breeding success to boost reproduction the malaysian and indonesian governments could also agree to exchange the gametes of the sumatran and smaller bornean subspecies the indonesian and malaysian governments have also proposed a single management unit for these two ancient subspecies 59 60 61 evolution skeleton of paraceratherium an extinct rhinocerotoid belonging to paraceratheriidae and one of the largest land mammals ever the earliest representatives of rhinocerotoidea appeared during the early middle eocene in asia around 54 million years ago 62 the family of modern rhinoceroses rhinocerotidae appeared during the middle late eocene around 39 40 million years ago roughly at the same in north america and asia 63 with rhinoceroses migrating into europe at the eocene oligocene boundary 34 million years ago as part of the grande coupure along with many other asian migrants 64 rhinocerotids represented the only living family of rhinocerotoids following the end of the oligocene epoch around 23 million and the extinction of other rhinocerotoid groups such as the giant paraceratheres 64 during the early miocene epoch around 20 million years ago rhinocerotids migrated into africa following its connection to eurasia 65 the last common ancestor of living rhinoceroses which belong to the subgroup rhinocerotina is thought to have lived during the miocene at least 15 16 million years ago 66 rhinocerotids reached maximum diversity during the miocene epoch with often 4 5 species of rhinoceros coexisting with each other at any location in eurasia up to 9 in south asia which include members of the living group rhinocerotina as well as the extinct groups teleoceratini aceratheriinae and elasmotheriinae 67 rhinocertoids declined in diversity during the late miocene following unfavourable climatic change becoming entirely extinct in north america at the beginning of the pliocene around 5 million years ago 65 with teleoceratini and aceratheriinae having become extinct by or during the early pliocene 67 the earliest remains of the genus rhinoceros which includes the living indian one horned and javan rhinoceros are known from the late miocene represented by remains such as an indeterminate species found in deposits in myanmar dating to around 8 9 million years ago 68 with the two modern species appearing during the early middle pleistocene epoch 69 the earliest unambiguous relatives of white and black rhinoceros belonging to the genera ceratotherium and diceros first appear during the late miocene 70 71 with the first unambiguous appearance of modern white and black rhinoceros during the early pleistocene 71 72 the earliest unambiguous remains of dicerorhinus are known from the latest pliocene 73 with the appearance of the modern sumatran rhinoceros during the early pleistocene 74 skeleton of a woolly rhinoceros coelodonta antiquitatis mhnt the thick dermal armour of the rhinoceros evolved at the same time as shearing tusks 75 alongside the extant species four additional species of rhinoceros survived into the last glacial period the woolly rhinoceros coelodonta antiquitatis elasmotherium sibiricum and two species of stephanorhinus merck s rhinoceros stephanorhinus kirchbergensis and the narrow nosed rhinoceros stephanorhinus hemitoechus 66 cladogram showing the relationships of recent and late pleistocene rhinoceros species minus stephanorhinus hemitoechus based on whole nuclear genomes after liu et al 2021 66 elasmotheriinae elasmotherium sibiricum rhinocerotinae white rhinoceros ceratotherium simum black rhinoceros diceros bicornis woolly rhinoceros coelodonta antiquitatis merck s rhinoceros stephanorhinus kirchbergensis sumatran rhinoceros dicerorhinus sumatrensis javan rhinoceros rhinoceros sondaicus indian rhinoceros rhinoceros unicornis denotes extinct taxa subfamilies and genera family rhinocerotidae 76 teletaceras uintaceras epiaceratherium trigonias ronzotherium diceratherium menoceras subhyracodon symphysorrhachis 77 molassitherium guixia 78 subfamily aceratheriinae 24 sometimes placed in rhinocerotinae as aceratheriina alicornops aprotodon acerorhinus aphelops hoploaceratherium persiatherium brachydiceratherium diaceratherium dromoceratherium floridaceras galushaceras chilotheridium mesaceratherium plesiaceratherium proaceratherium tribe aceratheriini 24 acerorhinus aphelops hoploaceratherium persiatherium aceratherium subchilotherium peraceras chilotherium shansirhinus tribe teleoceratini 24 sometimes placed as a separate group alicornops teleoceras brachypotherium prosantorhinus subfamily rhinocerotinae subtribe rhinocerotina 79 also used to encompass all modern rhinoceroses 80 nesorhinus rhinoceros indian javan rhinoceros tribe dicerorhinini or subtribe dicerorhinina also known as the dcs clade 66 pliorhinus coelodonta woolly rhinoceros dicerorhinus sumatran rhinoceros dihoplus 81 stephanorhinus merck s rhinoceros narrow nosed rhinoceros scythicorhinus 82 tribe dicerotini diceroti or subtribe dicerotina ceratotherium white rhinoceros diceros black rhinoceros paradiceros 83 miodiceros 14 rhinocerotinae incertae sedis protaceratherium 84 lartetotherium gaindatherium 85 rusingaceros subfamily elasmotheriinae gulfoceras penetrigonias subhyracodon menoceras diceratherium tribe elasmotheriini subtribe elasmotheriina bugtirhinus caementodon elasmotherium eoazara hispanotherium iranotherium victoriaceros 86 kenyatherium 87 meninatherium samburuceros ningxiatherium 88 ougandatherium 87 parelasmotherium 89 procoelodonta 90 sinotherium predators poaching and hunting see also rhino poaching in southern africa graph showing the number of rhinos poached annually in africa 2008 2018 91 an ethiopian shield from rhinoceros skin 19th century adult rhinoceroses have no real predators in the wild other than humans young rhinos sometimes fall prey to big cats crocodiles african wild dogs and hyenas although rhinos are large and aggressive and have a reputation for being resilient they are very easily poached they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink as of december 2009 poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective the most serious estimate that only 3 of poachers are successfully countered is reported of zimbabwe while nepal has largely avoided the crisis 92 poachers have become more sophisticated south african officials have called for urgent action against poaching after poachers killed the last female rhino in the krugersdorp game reserve near johannesburg 93 statistics from south african national parks show that 333 rhinoceroses were killed in south africa in 2010 94 increasing to 668 by 2012 95 over 1 004 in 2013 96 97 98 and over 1 338 killed in 2015 99 in some cases rhinos are tranquilized and their horns removed leaving them to bleed to death while in other instances more than the horn is taken 100 the namibian government has supported the practice of rhino trophy hunting as a way to raise money for conservation hunting licenses for five namibian black rhinos are auctioned annually with the money going to the government s game products trust fund some conservationists and members of the public oppose or question this practice 101 horn use weight of seized rhinoceros horns 2018 102 sign in the national museum of scotland notifying visitors that the horn on display is a replica this is because several rhinoceros horns have been stolen from museums 103 rhinoceros horns develop from subcutaneous tissues and are made of keratinous mineralized compartments the horns root in a germinative layer 104 rhinoceros horns are used in traditional medicines in parts of asia and for dagger handles in yemen and oman esmond bradley martin has reported on the trade for dagger handles in yemen 105 which was historically a major source for the demand for rhino horn in the late 20th century 8 in europe it was historically believed that rhino horns could purify water and could detect poisoned liquids and likely believed to be an aphrodisiac and an antidote to poison 106 it is a common misconception that rhinoceros horn in powdered form is used as an aphrodisiac 107 or a cure for cancer in traditional chinese medicine tcm as cornu rhinoceri asiatici 犀角 xījiǎo rhinoceros horn no tcm text in history has ever mentioned such prescriptions 108 109 110 111 in tcm rhino horn is sometimes prescribed for fevers and convulsions 112 a treatment not supported by evidence based medicine this treatment has been compared to consuming fingernail clippings in water 113 in a 2021 survey of chinese users of rhinoceros horn tcm products the vast majority of respondents cited dispelling heat and detoxification as reasons for using rhino horn 114 in 1993 china signed the cites treaty and removed rhinoceros horn from the chinese medicine pharmacopeia administered by the ministry of health in 2011 the register of chinese herbal medicine in the united kingdom issued a formal statement condemning the use of rhinoceros horn 115 a growing number of tcm educators are also speaking out against the practice 116 although some tcm practitioners still believe that it is a life saving medicine citation needed vietnam reportedly has the biggest number of rhino horn consumers with their demand driving most of the poaching which has risen to record levels 117 118 119 the vietnam cites management authority has claimed that hanoi recently experienced a 77 drop in the usage of rhino horn but national geographic has challenged these claims noticing that there was no rise in the numbers of criminals who were apprehended or prosecuted 120 south african rhino poaching s main destination market is vietnam 121 an average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn 122 123 horn trade international trade in rhinoceros horn has been declared illegal by the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora cites since 1977 124 a proposal by swaziland to lift the international ban was rejected in october 2016 125 domestic sale of rhinoceros horn in south africa home of 80 of the remaining rhino population 126 was banned as of 2009 the ban was overturned in a court case in 2017 and south africa plans to draft regulations for the sale of rhino horn possibly including export for non commercial purposes 127 the south african government has proposed that a legal trade of rhino horn be established arguing that this could reduce poaching and prevent the extinction of this species 128 in march 2013 some researchers suggested that the only way to reduce poaching would be to establish a regulated trade based on humane and renewable harvesting from live rhinos 129 the world wildlife fund opposes legalization of the horn trade as it may increase demand 130 while ifaw released a report by ecolarge suggesting that more thorough knowledge of economic factors is required to justify the pro trade option 131 conservation according to the world wide fund for nature conservation of african rhinoceroses as consumers of large amounts of vegetation is crucial to maintaining the shape of the african landscape and the natural resources of local communities 132 ways to prevent poaching horn removal to prevent poaching in certain areas rhinos have been tranquillized and their horns removed armed park rangers particularly in south africa are also working on the front lines to combat poaching sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act a 2012 spike in rhino killings increased concerns about the future of the species 133 134 135 136 clarification needed a 2025 science study found that dehorning led to a 78 reduction in poaching 137 138 horn poisoning in 2011 the rhino rescue project began a horn trade control method consisting of infusing the horns of living rhinos with a mixture of a pink dye and an acaricide to kill ticks which is safe for rhinos but toxic to humans 139 140 the procedure also includes inserting three rfid identification chips and taking dna samples 139 because of the fibrous nature of rhino horn the pressurized dye infuses the interior of the horn but does not color the surface or affect rhino behavior depending on the quantity of horn a person consumes experts believe the acaricide would cause nausea stomach ache and diarrhea and possibly convulsions it would not be fatal the primary deterrent is the knowledge that the treatment has been applied communicated by signs posted at the refuges the original idea grew out of research into the horn as a reservoir for one time tick treatments and experts selected an acaricide they think is safe for the...
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