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rs of meaning prose was tlahtolli also with its different categories and divisions 134 135 a key aspect of aztec poetics was the use of parallelism using a structure of embedded couplets to express different perspectives on the same element 136 some such couplets were diphrasisms conventional metaphors whereby an abstract concept was expressed metaphorically by using two more concrete concepts for example the nahuatl expression for poetry was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning the flower the song 137 a remarkable amount of this poetry survives having been collected during the era of the conquest in some cases poetry is attributed to individual authors such as nezahualcoyotl tlatoani of texcoco and cuacuauhtzin lord of tepechpan but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter of opinion an important collection of such poems is romances de los señores de la nueva españa collected tezcoco 1582 probably by juan bautista de pomar nb 9 and the cantares mexicanos 138 both men and women were poets in aztec society illustrating pre hispanic mexico s gender parallelism in upper class society 139 one famous female poet is macuilxochitzin whose work primarily focused on the aztec conquest 140 ceramics an aztec bowl for everyday use black on orange ware a simple aztec iv style flower design an aztec polychrome vessel typical of the cholula region a life size ceramic sculpture of an aztec eagle warrior the aztecs produced ceramics of different types common are orange wares which are orange or buff burnished ceramics with no slip red wares are ceramics with a reddish slip polychrome ware is ceramics with a white or orange slip with painted designs in orange red brown and or black very common is black on orange ware which is orange ware decorated with painted designs in black 141 142 143 aztec black on orange ceramics are chronologically classified into four phases aztec i and ii corresponding to c 1100 1350 early aztec period aztec iii c 1350 1520 and the last phase aztec iv was the early colonial period aztec i is characterized by floral designs and day name glyphs aztec ii is characterized by a stylized grass design above calligraphic designs such as s curves or loops aztec iii is characterized by very simple line designs aztec iv continues some pre columbian designs but adds european influenced floral designs there were local variations on each of these styles and archeologists continue to refine the ceramic sequence 142 typical vessels for everyday use were clay griddles for cooking comalli bowls and plates for eating caxitl pots for cooking comitl molcajetes or mortar type vessels with slashed bases for grinding chilli molcaxitl and different kinds of braziers tripod dishes and biconical goblets vessels were fired in simple updraft kilns or even in open firing in pit kilns at low temperatures 142 polychrome ceramics were imported from the cholula region also known as mixteca puebla style and these wares were highly prized as a luxury ware whereas the local black on orange styles were also for everyday use 144 painted art page from the pre columbian codex borgia a folding codex painted on deer skin prepared with gesso aztec painted art was produced on animal skin mostly deer on cotton lienzos and amate paper made from bark e g from trema micrantha or ficus aurea it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone the surface of the material was often first treated with gesso to make the images stand out more clearly the art of painting and writing was known in nahuatl by the metaphor in tlilli in tlapalli meaning the black ink the red pigment 145 146 there are few extant aztec painted books of these none are conclusively confirmed to have been created before the conquest but several codices must have been painted either right before the conquest or very soon after before traditions for producing them were much disturbed even if some codices may have been produced after the conquest there is good reason to think that they may have been copied from pre columbian originals by scribes the codex borbonicus is considered by some to be the only extant aztec codex produced before the conquest it is a calendric codex describing the day and month counts indicating the patron deities of the different periods 27 others consider it to have stylistic traits suggesting a post conquest production 147 some codices were produced post conquest sometimes commissioned by the colonial government for example codex mendoza were painted by aztec tlacuilos codex creators but under the control of spanish authorities who also sometimes commissioned codices describing pre colonial religious practices for example codex ríos after the conquest codices with calendric or religious information were sought out and systematically destroyed by the church whereas other types of painted books particularly historical narratives and tax lists continued to be produced 27 although depicting aztec deities and describing religious practices also shared by the aztecs of the valley of mexico the codices produced in southern puebla near cholula are sometimes not considered to be aztec codices because they were produced outside of the aztec heartland 27 karl anton nowotny nevertheless considered that the codex borgia painted in the area around cholula and using a mixtec style was the most significant work of art among the extant manuscripts 148 the first aztec murals were from teotihuacan 149 most of our current aztec murals were found in templo mayor 149 the aztec capital was decorated with elaborate murals in aztec murals humans are represented like they are represented in the codices one mural discovered in tlateloco depicts an old man and an old woman this may represent the gods cipactonal and oxomico sculpture the coatlicue statue in the national museum of anthropology sculptures were carved in stone and wood but few wood carvings have survived 150 aztec stone sculptures exist in many sizes from small figurines and masks to large monuments and are characterized by a high quality of craftsmanship 151 many sculptures were carved in highly realistic styles for example realistic sculpture of animals 152 in aztec artwork some monumental stone sculptures have been preserved such sculptures usually functioned as adornments for religious architecture particularly famous monumental rock sculpture includes the so called aztec sunstone or calendarstone discovered in 1790 also discovered in 1790 excavations of the zócalo was the 2 7 meter tall 8 9 ft coatlicue statue made of andesite representing a serpentine chthonic goddess with a skirt made of rattlesnakes the coyolxauhqui stone representing the dismembered goddess coyolxauhqui found in 1978 was at the foot of the staircase leading up to the great temple in tenochtitlan 153 two important types of sculpture are unique to the aztecs and related to the context of ritual sacrifice the cuauhxicalli or eagle vessel large stone bowls often shaped like eagles or jaguars used as a receptacle for extracted human hearts the temalacatl a monumental carved stone disk to which war captives were tied and sacrificed in a form of gladiatorial combat the most well known examples of this type of sculpture are the stone of tizoc and the stone of motecuzoma i both carved with images of warfare and conquest by specific aztec rulers many smaller stone sculptures depicting deities also exist the style used in religious sculpture was rigid stances likely meant to create a powerful experience for the onlooker 152 although aztec stone sculptures are now displayed in museums as unadorned rock they were originally painted in vivid polychrome color sometimes covered first with a base coat of plaster 154 early spanish conquistador accounts also describe stone sculptures as having been decorated with precious stones and metal inserted into the plaster 152 further information serpents in aztec art featherwork main article mexican featherwork aztec feather shield displaying the stepped fret design called xicalcoliuhqui in nahuatl c 1520 landesmuseum württemberg an especially prized art form among the aztecs was featherwork the creation of intricate and colorful mosaics of feathers and their use in garments as well as decoration on weaponry war banners and warrior suits the class of highly skilled and honored craftsmen who created feather objects was called the amanteca 155 named after the amantla neighborhood in tenochtitlan where they lived and worked 156 they did not pay taxes nor were required to perform public service the florentine codex gives information about how feather works were created the amanteca had two ways of creating their works one was to secure the feathers in place using agave cords for three dimensional objects such as fly whisks fans bracelets headgear and other objects the second and more difficult was a mosaic type technique which the spanish also called feather painting these were done principally on feather shields and cloaks for idols feather mosaics were arrangements of minute fragments of feathers from a wide variety of birds generally worked on a paper base made from cotton and paste then itself backed with amate paper but bases of other types of paper and directly on amate were done as well these works were done in layers with common feathers dyed feathers and precious feathers first a model was made with lower quality feathers and the precious feathers were found only on the top layer the adhesive for the feathers in the mesoamerican period was made from orchid bulbs feathers from local and faraway sources were used especially in the aztec empire the feathers were obtained from wild birds as well as from domesticated turkeys and ducks with the finest quetzal feathers coming from chiapas guatemala and honduras these feathers were obtained through trade and taxes due to the difficulty of conserving feathers fewer than ten pieces of original aztec featherwork exist today 157 colonial period 1521 1821 main article nahuas colonial period further information society in the spanish colonial americas codex kingsborough showing the abuse by spaniards of a nahua under the encomienda spanish labor system mexico city was built on the ruins of tenochtitlan gradually replacing and covering the lake the island and the architecture of aztec tenochtitlan 158 159 160 after the fall of tenochtitlan aztec warriors were enlisted as auxiliary troops alongside the spanish tlaxcalteca allies and aztec forces participated in all of the subsequent campaigns of conquest in northern and southern mesoamerica this meant that aspects of aztec culture and the nahuatl language continued to expand during the early colonial period as aztec auxiliary forces made permanent settlements in many of the areas that were put under the spanish crown 161 the aztec ruling dynasty continued to govern san juan tenochtitlan a division of the spanish capital of mexico city but the subsequent indigenous rulers were mostly puppets installed by the spanish one was andrés de tapia motelchiuh who was appointed by the spanish other former aztec city states likewise were established as colonial indigenous towns governed by a local indigenous gobernador this office was often initially held by the hereditary indigenous ruling line with the gobernador being the tlatoani but the two positions in many nahua towns became separated over time indigenous governors were in charge of the colonial political organization of the indians in particular they enabled the continued functioning of the tax and enslavement of indigenous commoners to benefit the spanish encomenderos encomenderos owned encomiendas large tracts of agricultural land on which the encomenderos and their slaves lived the spanish coerced the tribes into granting them private ownership of indigenous people and land for enslavement and encomiendas occasionally an indigenous individual benefited from this system and grew into substantial wealth and power come the colonial period 162 population decline main article population history of indigenous peoples of the americas depiction of smallpox during the spanish conquest in book xii of the florentine codex after the arrival of the europeans in mexico and the conquest indigenous populations declined significantly this was largely the result of the epidemics of viruses brought to the continent against which the natives had no immunity in 1520 1521 an outbreak of smallpox swept through the population of tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city further significant epidemics struck in 1545 and 1576 163 there has been no consensus about the population size of mexico at the time of european arrival early estimates gave very small population figures for the valley of mexico in 1942 kubler estimated a figure of 200 000 164 in 1963 borah and cook used preconquest tax lists to calculate the number of residents in central mexico estimating over 18 30 million their very high figure has been highly criticized for relying on unwarranted assumptions 165 archeologist william sanders based an estimate on archeological evidence of dwellings arriving at an estimate of 1 1 2 million inhabitants in the valley of mexico 166 whitmore used a computer simulation model based on colonial censuses to arrive at an estimate of 1 5 million for the basin in 1519 and an estimate of 16 million for all of mexico 167 depending on the estimations of the population in 1519 the scale of the decline in the 16th century range from around 50 percent to around 90 percent with sanders s and whitmore s estimates being around 90 percent 165 168 social and political continuity and change see also society in the spanish colonial americas josé sarmiento de valladares duke of moctezuma de tultengo viceroy of mexico although the aztec empire fell some of its highest elites continued to hold elite status in the colonial era the principal heirs of moctezuma ii and their descendants retained high status his son pedro moctezuma produced a son who married into the spanish aristocracy and a further generation saw the creation of the title duke of moctezuma de tultengo from 1696 to 1701 the viceroy of mexico held the title of count of moctezuma in 1766 the holder of the title became a grandee of spain in 1865 during the second mexican empire the title which was held by antonio maría moctezuma marcilla de teruel y navarro 14th count of moctezuma de tultengo was elevated to that of a duke thus becoming duke of moctezuma with de tultengo again added in 1992 by juan carlos i 169 two of moctezuma s daughters doña isabel moctezuma and her younger sister doña leonor moctezuma were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by hernán cortes 170 the nahua peoples just like other mesoamerican peoples in colonial new spain were able to maintain many aspects of their social and political structure under colonial rule the basic division the spanish made was between the indigenous 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