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a way for him to legitimize the pahlavi dynasty part of the reason for launching the white revolution was that the shah hoped to eliminate the influence of landlords and to create a new base of support among the peasants and the working class 80 81 thus the white revolution in iran was an attempt to introduce reform from above and preserve traditional power patterns through land reform the essence of the white revolution the shah hoped to ally himself with the peasantry in the countryside and hoped to sever their ties with the aristocracy in the city the shah did not foresee the white revolution leading to new social tensions that created many of the problems he was trying to avoid the shah s reforms more than quadrupled the combined size of the two classes that posed the greatest challenges to his monarchy in the past the intelligentsia and the urban working class their resentment of the shah also grew as they were now stripped of organizations that had represented them in the past such as political parties professional associations trade unions and independent newspapers land reform instead of allying the peasants with the government produced large numbers of independent farmers and landless laborers who became part of the political opposition with no loyalty to the shah many of the masses resented the increasingly corrupt government their loyalty to the clergy who were viewed as more concerned with the fate of the populace remained consistent or increased as ervand abrahamian pointed out the white revolution had been designed to preempt a red revolution instead it paved the way for an islamic revolution 82 in theory oil money funneled to the elite was supposed to create jobs and factories eventually distributing the money instead the wealth tended to remain concentrated in the hands of the very few at the top 83 rise and exile of ayatollah khomeini 1963 1979 main article ruhollah khomeini see also movement of 15 khordad and ruhollah khomeini s return to iran exile the post revolutionary leader twelver shia cleric ayatollah ruhollah khomeini first rose to political prominence in 1963 when he led opposition to the shah and his white revolution khomeini was arrested in 1963 after declaring the shah a wretched miserable man who embarked on the path toward destruction of islam in iran 84 three days of major riots throughout iran followed with 15 000 dead from police fire as reported by opposition sources 85 however anti revolutionary sources conjectured that just 32 were killed 86 khomeini was released after eight months of house arrest and continued his agitation condemning iran s close cooperation with israel and its capitulations or extension of diplomatic immunity to american government personnel in iran in november 1964 khomeini was re arrested and sent into exile where he remained for 15 years mostly in najaf iraq until the revolution ideology of the iranian revolution main article ideology of the iranian revolution see also islamic fundamentalism in iran residents of tehran participating in the demonstrations of 5 june 1963 with pictures of ruhollah khomeini in their hands in this interim period of disaffected calm 87 the budding iranian revival began to undermine the idea of westernization as progress that was the basis of the shah s secular reign and to form the ideology of the 1979 revolution jalal al e ahmad s idea of gharbzadegi that western culture was a plague or an intoxication to be eliminated 88 ali shariati s vision of islam as the one true liberator of the third world from oppressive colonialism neo colonialism and capitalism 89 and morteza motahhari s popularized retellings of the shia faith all spread and gained listeners readers and supporters 88 most importantly khomeini preached that revolt and especially martyrdom against injustice and tyranny was part of shia islam 90 and that muslims should reject the influence of both liberal capitalism and communism ideas that inspired the revolutionary slogan neither east nor west islamic republic away from public view khomeini developed the ideology of velayat e faqih guardianship of the jurist as government that muslims in fact everyone required guardianship in the form of rule or supervision by the leading islamic jurist or jurists 91 such rule was ultimately more necessary even than prayer and fasting in islam note 5 as it would protect islam from deviation from traditional sharia law and in so doing eliminate poverty injustice and the plundering of muslim land by foreign non believers 92 this idea of rule by islamic jurists was spread through his book islamic government mosque sermons and smuggled cassette speeches by khomeini 93 94 among his opposition network of students talabeh ex students able clerics such as morteza motahhari mohammad beheshti mohammad javad bahonar akbar hashemi rafsanjani and mohammad mofatteh and traditional businessmen bazaari inside iran 93 opposition groups and organizations main article organizations of the iranian revolution other opposition groups included constitutionalist liberals the democratic reformist islamic freedom movement of iran headed by mehdi bazargan and the more secular national front they were based in the urban middle class and wanted the shah to adhere to the iranian constitution of 1906 rather than to replace him with a theocracy 95 but lacked the cohesion and organization of khomeini s forces 96 communist groups primarily the tudeh party of iran and the fedaian guerrillas note 6 had been weakened considerably by government repression despite this the guerrillas did help play an important part in the final february 1979 overthrow 98 delivering the regime its coup de grace 99 the most powerful guerrilla group the people s mujahedin was leftist islamist and opposed the influence of the clergy as reactionary some important clergy did not follow khomeini s lead popular ayatollah mahmoud taleghani supported the left while perhaps the most senior and influential ayatollah in iran mohammad kazem shariatmadari first remained aloof from politics and then came out in support of a democratic revolution 100 khomeini worked to unite this opposition behind him except for the unwanted atheistic marxists 10 101 focusing on the socio economic problems of the shah s government corruption and unequal income and development 10 102 while avoiding specifics among the public that might divide the factions 103 particularly his plan for clerical rule which he believed most iranians had become prejudiced against as a result of propaganda campaign by western imperialists note 7 104 in the post shah era some revolutionaries who clashed with his theocracy and were suppressed by his movement complained of deception 102 but in the meantime anti shah unity was maintained 105 1970 1977 several events in the 1970s set the stage for the 1979 revolution the 1971 2 500 year celebration of the persian empire at persepolis organized by the government was attacked for its extravagance as the foreigners reveled on drink forbidden by islam iranians were not only excluded from the festivities some were starving 106 five years later the shah angered pious iranian muslims by changing the first year of the iranian solar calendar from the islamic hijri to the ascension to the throne by cyrus the great iran jumped overnight from the muslim year 1355 to the royalist year 2535 107 the shah of iran left meeting with members of the us government alfred atherton william sullivan cyrus vance jimmy carter and zbigniew brzezinski 1977 the oil boom of the 1970s produced an alarming increase in inflation waste and an accelerating gap between the rich and poor the urban and the rural 108 along with the presence of tens of thousands of unpopular skilled foreign workers many iranians were also angered by the fact that the shah s family was the foremost beneficiary of the income generated by oil and the line between state earnings and family earnings blurred by 1976 the shah had accumulated upward of 1 billion from oil revenue his family including 63 princes and princesses had accumulated between 5 and 20 billion and the family foundation controlled approximately 3 billion 109 by mid 1977 economic austerity measures to fight inflation disproportionately affected thousands of poor and unskilled male migrants settled in the cities and working in the construction industry culturally and religiously conservative 110 many went on to form the core of the revolution s demonstrators and martyrs 111 all iranians were required to join and pay dues to a new political party the rastakhiz party all other parties were banned 112 that party s attempt to fight inflation with populist anti profiteering campaigns fining and jailing merchants for high prices angered and politicized merchants while fueling black markets 113 in 1977 the shah responded to the polite reminder of the importance of political rights by the new american president jimmy carter by granting amnesty to some prisoners and allowing the red cross to visit prisons through 1977 liberal opposition formed organizations and issued open letters denouncing the government 114 against this background a first crucial manifestation of public expression of social discontent and political protest against the regime took place in october 1977 when the german iranian cultural association in tehran hosted a series of literature reading sessions organized by the newly revived iranian writers association and the german goethe institute in these ten nights dah shab 57 of iran s most prominent poets and writers read their works to thousands of listeners they demanded the end of censorship and claimed the freedom of expression 115 also in 1977 the popular and influential modernist islamist theorist ali shariati died under mysterious circumstances this both angered his followers who considered him a martyr at the hands of savak and removed a potential revolutionary rival to khomeini finally in october khomeini s son mostafa died of an alleged heart attack and his death was also blamed on savak a subsequent memorial service for mostafa in tehran put khomeini back in the spotlight 116 117 outbreak see also island of stability speech by 1977 the shah s policy of political liberalization was underway secular opponents of the shah began to meet in secret to denounce the government 118 119 led by the leftist intellectual saeed soltanpour the iranian writers association met at the goethe institute in tehran to read anti government poetry 118 ali shariati s death in the united kingdom shortly after led to another public demonstration with the opposition accusing the shah of murdering him 19 118 the chain of events initiating the revolution began with the death of mostafa khomeini chief aide and eldest son of ruhollah khomeini he mysteriously died at midnight on 23 october 1977 in najaf iraq savak and the iraqi government declared heart attack as the cause of death though many attributed his death to savak 120 khomeini remained silent after the incident while in iran with the spread of the news came a wave of protest and mourning ceremonies in several cities 121 122 the mourning of mostafa was given a political cast by khomeini s political credentials their enduring opposition to the monarchy and their exile this dimension of the ceremonies went beyond the religious credentials of the family 24 prelude 1978 beginning of protests january main article 1978 qom protest on 7 january 1978 an article titled iran and red and black colonization appeared in the national daily ettela at newspaper written under a pseudonym by a government agent it denounced khomeini as a british agent and a mad indian poet conspiring to sell out iran to neo colonialists and communists 18 19 the developments initiated by seminaries in the city of qom closing on 7 january 1978 were followed by the bazaar and seminary closing and students rallied towards the homes of the religious leaders the next day 123 on 9 january 1978 seminary students and other people demonstrated in the city and the shah s security forces cracked down on the demonstrators the security forces shot live ammunition to disperse the crowd when the peaceful demonstration turned violent 124 reports of between 5 and 300 demonstrators were killed in the assault on the protesters 123 4 206 9 january 1978 19 dey is regarded as a bloody day in qom 125 126 consolidation of the opposition february march see also 1978 tabriz protests according to shia custom memorial services chehelom are held 40 days after a person s death 127 encouraged by khomeini who declared that the blood of martyrs must water the tree of islam 119 radicals pressured the mosques and moderate clergy to commemorate the deaths of the students and used the occasion to generate protests 128 the informal network of mosques and bazaars which for years had been used to carry out religious events increasingly became consolidated as a coordinated protest organization 24 127 129 on 18 february 40 days after the qom protests demonstrations broke out in various cities 130 the largest was in tabriz which descended into a full scale riot western and government symbols such as cinemas bars state owned banks and police stations were set ablaze 127 units of the imperial iranian army were deployed to restore order the death toll according to the government was six 131 while khomeini claimed hundreds were martyred 11 118 132 forty days later on 29 march demonstrations were organized in at least 55 cities including tehran 127 in an increasingly predictable pattern deadly riots broke out in major cities 127 133 and again 40 days later on 10 may army commandos opened fire on shariatmadari s house killing one of his students shariatmadari immediately made a public announcement declaring his support for a constitutional government and a return to the policies of the 1906 constitution 11 119 127 government reaction pro shah demonstration organized by the resurgence party in tabriz april 1978 the shah was taken completely by surprise by the protests 11 25 and often became indecisive during times of crisis 18 virtually every major decision he made backfired and further inflamed the revolutionaries 18 the shah decided to continue on his plan of liberalization and to negotiate rather than to use force against the still nascent protest movement 127 128 133 he promised fully democratic elections for the majlis would be held in 1979 relaxed censorship and a resolution was drafted to help reduce corruption within the royal family and the government 134 protesters were tried in civilian courts rather than by military courts martial and were quickly released 130 133 iran s security forces had neither received riot control training nor equipment since 1963 131 as a result police were unable to control demonstrations thus the army was frequently deployed 133 soldiers were instructed not to use deadly force yet there were instances of inexperienced soldiers reacting excessi...
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