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s their power and all their honor nikephoros pointed out to liutprand personally that otto was a mere barbarian king who had no right to call himself an emperor nor to call himself a roman 27 just before liutprand s arrival in constantinople nikephoros ii had received an offensive letter from pope john xiii possibly written under pressure from otto in which the byzantine emperor was referred to as the emperor of the greeks and not the emperor of the romans denying his true imperial status liutprand recorded the outburst of nikephoros s representatives at this letter which illustrates that the byzantines too had developed an idea similar to translatio imperii regarding the transfer of power from rome to constantinople 22 hear then the silly pope does not know that the holy constantine transferred hither the imperial sceptre the senate and all the roman knighthood and left in rome nothing but vile minions fishers namely pedlars bird catchers bastards plebeians slaves 10th century ivory book cover inspired by byzantine art depicting holy roman emperor otto ii and his wife empress theophanu liutprand attempted to diplomatically excuse the pope by stating that the pope had believed that the byzantines would not like the term romans since they had moved to constantinople and changed their customs and assured nikephoros that in the future the eastern emperors would be addressed in papal letters as the great and august emperor of the romans 28 otto s attempted cordial relations with the byzantine empire would be hindered by the problem of the two emperors and the eastern emperors were less than eager to reciprocate his feelings 26 liutprand s mission to constantinople was a diplomatic disaster and his visit saw nikephoros repeatedly threaten to invade italy restore rome to byzantine control and on one occasion even threaten to invade germany itself stating concerning otto that we will arouse all the nations against him and we will break him in pieces like a potter s vessel 26 otto s attempt at a marriage alliance would not materialize until after nikephoros s death in 972 in the reign of byzantine emperor john i tzimiskes a marriage was secured between otto s son and co emperor otto ii and john s niece theophanu 24 though emperor otto i briefly used the title imperator augustus romanorum ac francorum august emperor of romans and franks in 966 the style he used most commonly was simply imperator augustus otto leaving out any mention of romans in his imperial title may be because he wanted to achieve the recognition of the byzantine emperor following otto s reign mentions of the romans in the imperial title became more common in the 11th century the german king the title held by those who were later crowned emperors was referred to as the rex romanorum king of the romans and in the century after that the standard imperial title was dei gratia romanorum imperator semper augustus by the grace of god emperor of the romans ever august 15 hohenstaufen period edit to liutprand of cremona and later scholars in the west the eastern emperors were perceived as weak degenerate and not true emperors there was they felt a single empire under the true emperors otto i and his successors who demonstrated their right to the empire through their restoration of the church in return the eastern emperors did not recognize the imperial status of their challengers in the west although michael i had referred to charlemagne by the title basileus in 812 he hadn t referred to him as the roman emperor basileus in of itself was far from an equal title to that of roman emperor in their own documents the only emperor recognized by the byzantines was their own ruler the emperor of the romans in anna komnene s the alexiad c 1148 the emperor of the romans is her father alexios i while the holy roman emperor henry iv is titled simply as the king of germany 28 according to arnold of lübeck when king of romans conrad iii met byzantine emperor manuel i komnenos in 1147 who he calls king of the greeks b conrad iii refused to submit to manuel i so they rode to each other and gave each other a welcoming kiss the accuracy of the account remains disputed 29 in the 1150s the byzantine emperor manuel i komnenos became involved in a three way struggle between himself the holy roman emperor frederick i barbarossa and the italo norman king of sicily roger ii manuel aspired to lessen the influence of his two rivals and at the same time win the recognition of the pope and thus by extension western europe as the sole legitimate emperor which would unite christendom under his sway manuel reached for this ambitious goal by financing a league of lombard towns to rebel against frederick and encouraging dissident norman barons to do the same against the sicilian king manuel even dispatched his army to southern italy the last time a byzantine army ever set foot in western europe despite his efforts manuel s campaign ended in failure and he won little except the hatred of both barbarossa and roger who by the time the campaign concluded had allied with each other 30 frederick barbarossa s crusade edit see also third crusade the choice of the holy roman emperor frederick i barbarossa left to march through the byzantine empire during the third crusade in 1189 caused the byzantine emperor isaac ii angelos right to panic and nearly caused a full scale war between the byzantine empire and western christianity soon after the conclusion of the byzantine norman wars in 1185 the byzantine emperor isaac ii angelos received word that a third crusade had been called due to sultan saladin s 1187 conquest of jerusalem isaac learnt that barbarossa a known foe of his empire was to lead a large contingent in the footprints of the first and second crusades through the byzantine empire isaac ii interpreted barbarossa s march through his empire as a threat and considered it inconceivable that barbarossa did not also intend to overthrow the byzantine empire 31 as a result of his fears isaac ii imprisoned numerous latin citizens in constantinople 32 in his treaties and negotiations with barbarossa which exist preserved as written documents isaac ii was insincere as he had secretly allied with saladin to gain concessions in the holy land and had agreed to delay and destroy the german army 32 barbarossa who did not in fact intend to take constantinople was unaware of isaac s alliance with saladin but still wary of the rival emperor as such he sent out an embassy in early 1189 headed by the bishop of münster 32 isaac was absent at the time putting down a revolt in philadelphia and returned to constantinople a week after the german embassy arrived after which he immediately had the germans imprisoned this imprisonment was partly motivated by isaac wanting to possess german hostages but more importantly an embassy from saladin probably noticed by the german ambassadors was also in the capital at this time 33 on 28 june 1189 barbarossa s crusade reached the byzantine borders the first time a holy roman emperor personally set foot within the borders of the byzantine empire although barbarossa s army was received by the closest major governor the governor of branitchevo the governor had received orders to stall or if possible destroy the german army on his way to the city of niš barbarossa was repeatedly assaulted by locals under the orders of the governor of branitchevo and isaac ii also engaged in a campaign of closing roads and destroying foragers 33 the attacks against barbarossa amounted to little and only resulted in around a hundred losses a more serious issue was a lack of supplies since the byzantines refused to provide markets for the german army the lack of markets was excused by isaac as due to not having received advance notice of barbarossa s arrival a claim rejected by barbarossa who saw the embassy he had sent earlier as notice enough despite these issues barbarossa still apparently believed that isaac was not hostile against him and refused invitations from the enemies of the byzantines to join an alliance against them while at niš he was assured by byzantine ambassadors that though there was a significant byzantine army assembled near sofia it had been assembled to fight the serbs and not the germans this was a lie and when the germans reached the position of this army they were treated with hostility though the byzantines fled at the first charge of the german cavalry 34 path of the third crusade 1189 1192 emperor frederick barbarossa s path in red isaac ii panicked and issued contradictory orders to the governor of the city of philippopolis one of the strongest fortresses in thrace fearing that the germans were to use the city as a base of operations its governor niketas choniates later a major historian of these events was first ordered to strengthen the city s walls and hold the fortress at all costs but later to abandon the city and destroy its fortifications isaac ii seems to have been unsure of how to deal with barbarossa barbarossa meanwhile wrote to the main byzantine commander manuel kamytzes that resistance was in vain but also made clear that he had absolutely no intention to harm the byzantine empire on 21 august a letter from isaac ii reached barbarossa who was encamped outside philippopolis in the letter which caused great offense isaac ii explicitly called himself the emperor of the romans in opposition to barbarossa s title and the germans also misinterpreted the byzantine emperor as calling himself an angel on account of his last name angelos furthermore isaac ii demanded half of any territory to be conquered from the muslims during the crusade and justified his actions by claiming that he had heard from the governor of branitchevo that barbarossa had plans to conquer the byzantine empire and place his son frederick of swabia on its throne at the same time barbarossa learnt of the imprisonment of his earlier embassy 35 several of barbarossa s barons suggested that they take immediate military action against the byzantines but barbarossa preferred a diplomatic solution 36 in the letters exchanged between isaac ii and barbarossa neither side titled the other in the way they considered to be appropriate in his first letter isaac ii referred to barbarossa simply as the king of germany the byzantines eventually realized that the wrong title hardly improved the tense situation and in the second letter barbarossa was called the most high born emperor of germany refusing to recognize barbarossa as the roman emperor the byzantines eventually relented with calling him the most noble emperor of elder rome as opposed to the new rome constantinople the germans always referred to isaac ii as the greek emperor or the emperor of constantinople 37 emperor frederick barbarossa depicted during the third crusade the byzantines continued to harass the germans the wine left behind in the abandoned city of philippopolis had been poisoned and a second embassy sent from the city to constantinople by barbarossa was also imprisoned though shortly thereafter isaac ii relented and released both embassies when the embassies reunited with barbarossa at philippopolis they told the holy roman emperor of isaac ii s alliance with saladin and claimed that the byzantine emperor intended to destroy the german army while it was crossing the bosporus in retaliation for spotting anti crusader propaganda in the surrounding region the crusaders devastated the immediate area around philippopolis slaughtering the locals after barbarossa was addressed as the king of germany he flew into a fit of rage demanding hostages from the byzantines including isaac ii s son and family asserting that he was the one true emperor of the romans and made it clear that he intended to winter in thrace despite the byzantine emperor s offer of assisting the german army to cross the bosporus 38 by this point barbarossa had become convinced that constantinople needed to be conquered in order for the crusade to be successful on 18 november he sent a letter to his son henry in which he explained to difficulties he had encountered and ordered his son to prepare for an attack against constantinople ordering the assembling of a large fleet to meet him in the bosporus once spring came furthermore henry was instructed to ensure papal support for such a campaign organizing a great western crusade against the byzantines as enemies of god isaac ii replied to barbarossa s threats by claiming that thrace would be barbarossa s deathtrap and that it was too late for the german emperor to escape his nets as barbarossa s army reinforced with serbian and vlach allies approached constantinople isaac ii s resolve faded and he began to favor peace instead 39 barbarossa had continued to send offers of peace and reconciliation since he had seized philippopolis and once barbarossa officially sent a declaration of war in late 1189 isaac ii at last relented realizing he wouldn t be able to destroy the german army and was at risk of losing constantinople itself the peace saw the germans being allowed to pass freely through the empire transportation across the bosporus and the opening of markets as well as compensation for the damage done to barbarossa s expedition by the byzantines 40 frederick then continued on towards the holy land without any further major incidents with the byzantines with the exception of the german army almost sacking the city of philadelphia after its governor refused to open up the markets to the crusaders 41 the incidents during the third crusade heightened animosity between the byzantine empire and the west to the byzantines the devastation of thrace and efficiency of the german soldiers had illustrated the threat they represented while in the west the mistreatment of the emperor and the imprisonment of the embassies would be long remembered 42 threats of henry vi edit emperor henry vi nearly succeeded in uniting christendom under his own sway ruling all of germany and italy as holy roman emperor and king of sicily formally vassalizing the kingdoms of cyprus and cilician armenia and receiving recognitions of suzerainty by the kingdoms of england france the crown of aragon and the crusader states in the levant he also extracted tribute from the byzantine empire which he might have aspired to eventually conquer frederick barbarossa died before reaching the holy land and his son and successor henry vi pursued a foreign policy in which he aimed to force the byzantine court to accept him as the superior and sole legitimate emperor 43 by 1194 henry had successfully consolidated italy under his own rule after being crowned as king of sicily in addition to already being the holy roman emperor and the king of italy and he turned his gaze east the muslim world had fractured after saladin s death and barbarossa s crusade had revealed the byzantine empire to be weak and also given a useful casus belli for attack furthermore leo ii the ruler of cilici...
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