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from the united kingdom france and the u s also exercised influence in mexico 25 díaz and the military edit díaz had legitimacy as a leader through his battlefield accomplishments he knew that the long tradition of military intervention in politics and its resistance to civilian control would prove challenging to his remaining in power he set about curbing the power of the military reining in provincial military chieftains and making them subordinate to the central government he contended with a whole new group of generals who had fought for the liberal cause and who expected rewards for their services he systematically dealt with them providing some rivals with opportunities to enrich themselves ensuring the loyalty of others with high salaries and others were bought off by rewards of landed estates and redirecting their political ambitions military rivals who did not accept the alternatives often rebelled and were crushed it took him some 15 years to complete the transformation reducing the army by 500 officers and 25 generals creating an army subordinate to central power he also created the military academy to train officers but their training aimed to repel foreign invasions 26 díaz expanded the rural police force the rurales as an elite guard including many former bandits under the direct control of the president 27 with these forces díaz attempted to appease the mexican countryside led by a stable government that was nominally civilian and the conditions to develop the country economically with the infusion of foreign investments during díaz s long tenure in office the federal army became overstaffed and top heavy with officers many of them elderly who last saw active military service against the french in the 1860s some 9 000 officers commanded the 25 000 rank and file on the books with some 7 000 padding the rosters and nonexistent so that officers could receive the subsidies for the numbers they commanded officers used their positions for personal enrichment through salary and opportunities for graft although mexicans had enthusiastically volunteered in the war against the french the ranks were now filled by draftees there was a vast gulf between officers and the lower ranks the officer corps epitomized everything the masses resented about the díaz system 28 with multiple rebellions breaking out in the wake of the fraudulent 1910 election the military was unable to suppress them revealing the regime s weakness and leading to díaz s resignation in may 1911 15 political system edit a banner 1903 at the office of opposition magazine el hijo del ahuizote reads the constitution has died la constitución ha muerto although the díaz regime was authoritarian and centralizing turning into a full autocracy after 1886 it was not a military dictatorship his first presidential cabinet was staffed with military men but over successive terms as president important posts were held by able and loyal civilians 29 he did not create a personal dynasty excluding family from the realms of power although his nephew félix attempted to seize power after the fall of the regime in 1911 díaz created a political machine first working with regional strongmen and bringing them into his regime then replacing them with jefes políticos political bosses who were loyal to him he skillfully managed political conflict and reined in tendencies toward autonomy he appointed several military officers to state governorships including general bernardo reyes who became governor of the northern state of nuevo león but over the years military men were largely replaced by civilians loyal to díaz as a military man himself and one who had intervened directly in politics to seize the presidency in 1876 díaz was acutely aware that the federal army could oppose him he augmented the rurales a police force created by benito juárez making them his private armed force the rurales were only 2 500 in number as opposed to the 30 000 in the army and another 30 000 in the federal auxiliaries irregulars and national guard 30 despite their small numbers the rurales were highly effective in controlling the countryside especially along the 12 000 miles of railway lines they were a mobile force often sent on trains with their horses to put down rebellions in relatively remote areas of mexico 31 the construction of railways had been transformative in mexico as well as elsewhere in latin america accelerating economic activity and increasing the power of the mexican state the isolation from the central government that many remote areas had enjoyed or suffered was ending telegraph lines constructed next to the railroad tracks meant instant communication between distant states and the capital 32 the political acumen and flexibility díaz exhibited in his early years in office began to decline after 1900 he brought the state governors under his control replacing them at will the federal army while large was increasingly an ineffective force with aging leadership and troops conscripted into service díaz attempted the same kind of manipulation he executed with the mexican political system with business interests showing favoritism to european interests against those of the u s 33 rival interests particularly those of the foreign powers with a presence in mexico further complicated an already complex system of favoritism 25 as economic activity increased and industries thrived industrial workers began organizing for better conditions díaz enacted policies that encouraged large landowners to intrude upon the villagers land and water rights 34 with the expansion of mexican agriculture landless peasants were forced to work for low wages or move to the cities peasant agriculture was under pressure as haciendas expanded such as in the state of morelos just south of mexico city with its burgeoning sugar plantations there was what one scholar has called agrarian compression in which population growth intersected with land loss declining wages and insecure tenancies to produce widespread economic deterioration but the regions under the greatest stress were not the ones that rebelled 35 opposition to díaz edit ricardo flores magón left and enrique flores magón right leaders of the mexican liberal party imprisoned in the los angeles ca county jail 1917 land and liberty the slogan of the mexican liberal party díaz effectively suppressed strikes rebellions and political opposition from the rigged 1886 midterms until the early 1900s mexicans began to organize in opposition to díaz who had welcomed foreign capital and capitalists suppressed nascent labor unions and consistently moved against peasants as agriculture flourished 36 in 1905 the group of mexican intellectuals and political agitators who had created the mexican liberal party partido liberal de méxico drew up a radical program of reform specifically addressing what they considered to be the worst aspects of the díaz regime most prominent in the plm were ricardo flores magón and his two brothers enrique and jesús they along with luis cabrera and antonio díaz soto y gama were connected to the anti díaz publication el hijo del ahuizote political cartoons by josé guadalupe posada lampooned politicians and cultural elites with mordant humor portraying them as skeletons the liberal party of mexico founded the anti díaz anarchist newspaper regeneración which appeared in both spanish and english in exile in the united states práxedis guerrero began publishing an anti díaz newspaper alba roja red dawn in san francisco california although leftist groups were small they became influential through their publications articulating their opposition to the díaz regime francisco bulnes described these men as the true authors of the mexican revolution for agitating the masses 37 as the 1910 election approached francisco i madero an emerging political figure and member of one of mexico s richest families funded the newspaper anti reelectionista in opposition to the continual re election of díaz organized labor conducted strikes for better wages and just treatment demands for better labor conditions were central to the liberal party program drawn up in 1905 mexican copper miners in the northern state of sonora took action in the 1906 cananea strike starting june 1 1906 5 400 miners began organizing labor strikes 38 among other grievances they were paid less than u s nationals working in the mines 39 in the state of veracruz textile workers rioted in january 1907 at the huge río blanco factory the world s largest protesting against unfair labor practices they were paid in credit that could be used only at the company store binding them to the company 40 these strikes were ruthlessly suppressed with factory owners receiving support from government forces in the cananea strike mine owner william cornell greene received support from díaz s rurales in sonora as well as arizona rangers called in from across the u s border 39 arizona rangers were ordered to use violence to combat labor unrest 41 in the state of veracruz the mexican army gunned down rio blanco textile workers and put the bodies on train cars that transported them to veracruz where the bodies were dumped in the harbor as food for sharks 42 since the press was censored in mexico under díaz little was published that was critical of the regime newspapers barely reported on the rio blanco textile strike the cananea strike or harsh labor practices on plantations in oaxaca and yucatán leftist mexican opponents of the díaz regime such as ricardo flores magón and práxedis guerrero went into exile in the relative safety of the united states but cooperation between the u s government and díaz s agents resulted in the arrest of some radicals 43 presidential succession in 1910 edit general bernardo reyes who later rebelled against president madero francisco i madero campaigns from the back of a railway car in 1910 díaz had ruled continuously since 1884 the question of presidential succession was an issue as early as 1900 when he turned 70 44 díaz re established the office of vice president in 1906 choosing ramón corral rather than managing political succession díaz marginalized corral keeping him away from decision making 45 díaz publicly announced in an interview with journalist james creelman for pearson s magazine that he would not run in the 1910 election at age 80 this set the scene for a possible peaceful transition in the presidency it set off a flurry of political activity to the dismay of potential candidates to replace him he reversed himself and ran again his later reversal on retiring from the presidency set off tremendous activity among opposition groups díaz seems to have initially considered finance minister josé yves limantour as his successor limantour was a key member of the científicos the circle of technocratic advisers steeped in positivist political science another potential successor was general bernardo reyes díaz s minister of war who also served as governor of nuevo león reyes an opponent of the científicos was a moderate reformer with a considerable base of support 44 díaz became concerned about him as a rival and forced him to resign from his cabinet he attempted to marginalize reyes by sending him on a military mission to europe 45 distancing him from mexico and potential political supporters the potential challenge from reyes would remain one of díaz s political obsessions through the rest of the decade which ultimately blinded him to the danger of the challenge of francisco madero s anti re electionist campaign 45 in 1910 francisco i madero a young man from a wealthy landowning family in the northern state of coahuila announced his intent to challenge díaz for the presidency in the next election under the banner of the anti reelectionist party madero chose as his running mate francisco vázquez gómez a physician who had opposed díaz 46 madero campaigned vigorously and effectively to ensure madero did not win díaz had him jailed before the election he escaped and fled for a short period to san antonio texas 47 díaz was announced the winner of the election by a landslide end of the porfiriato november 1910 may 1911 edit see also treaty of ciudad juárez principal battles during the fight to oust díaz november 1910 may 1911 most action was in the northern border area with the battle of ciudad juárez being a decisive blow but the struggle in morelos by the zapatistas was also extremely important since the state was just south of the mexican capital pancho villa and followers on 5 october 1910 madero issued a letter from jail known as the plan de san luis potosí with its main slogan sufragio efectivo no re elección effective voting no re election it declared the díaz presidency illegal and called for a revolt against him starting on 20 november 1910 madero s political plan did not outline a major socioeconomic revolution but offered hopes of change for many disadvantaged mexicans the plan strongly opposed militarism in mexico as it was constituted under díaz calling on federal army generals to resign before true democracy could prevail in mexico madero realized he needed a revolutionary armed force enticing men to join with the promise of formal rank and encouraged federales to join the revolutionary forces with the promise of promotion 48 madero s plan was aimed at fomenting a popular uprising against díaz but he also understood that the support of the united states and american financiers would be of crucial importance in undermining the regime the rich and powerful madero family drew on its resources to make regime change possible with madero s brother gustavo a madero hiring in october 1910 the firm of washington lawyer sherburne hopkins the world s best rigger of latin american revolutions to encourage support in the u s 30 a strategy to discredit díaz with american business and the u s government achieved some success with standard oil representatives engaging in talks with gustavo madero more importantly the american government bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries 49 in late 1910 revolutionary movements arose in response to madero s plan de san luis potosí still their ultimate success resulted from the federal army s weakness and inability to suppress them 50 madero s vague promises of land reform attracted many peasants throughout the country spontaneous rebellions arose in which ordinary farm laborers miners and other working class mexicans along with much of the country s population of indigenous peoples fought díaz s forces with some success madero attracted the forces of rebel leaders such as pascual orozco pancho villa emiliano zapata and venustiano carranza a young and able revolutionary orozco along with chihuahua governor abraham gonzález formed a powerful military union in the north and although they were not especially committed to madero took mexicali and chihuahua city these victories encouraged alliances with other revolutionary leaders including villa ...
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