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er study in 2015 reclassified them into about 600 groups after noting classification difficulties 311 austronesian speaking populations predominate in much of western and central indonesia 312 melanesian populations live mainly in the eastern islands including parts of nusa tenggara maluku and papua 312 313 the javanese are the largest ethnic group making up about 40 of the population 314 other major groups include the sundanese malay batak madurese betawi minangkabau and bugis 315 h the official language indonesian is a standardized variety of malay based on the riau johor literary tradition 319 malay had long served as a lingua franca in the archipelago before indonesian nationalists adopted it as a language of unity through the 1928 youth pledge 320 it gained official and formal status in 1945 under the name bahasa indonesia 321 written in the latin script 322 indonesian has spread through education government and mass media and serves as a common language across ethnic and regional boundaries 323 more than 700 languages are spoken across the archipelago 324 they are divided into two major language groups austronesian and papuan 325 javanese is the most widely spoken local language and has official regional status in yogyakarta 326 327 several regional languages in indonesia have traditional writing systems of their own some of which survive in only limited use today 328 329 local languages remain part of regional identity and cultural heritage even as indonesian dominates national public life 330 dutch never became widely spoken as malay was already the archipelago s lingua franca 331 however it remains important in some legal contexts 332 religion main article religion in indonesia baiturrahman grand mosque in aceh northern sumatra saw one of the earliest islamic sultanates in southeast asia 333 a hindu prayer ceremony at besakih temple in bali indonesia s only hindu majority province 334 indonesia recognises six religions islam protestantism roman catholicism hinduism buddhism and confucianism 335 while the constitution guarantees freedom of religion 336 the state regulates religious affiliation and public worship recognised religions receive administrative recognition for religious affiliation marriages and houses of worship but followers of indigenous religions often receive weaker recognition or face discrimination 337 pancasila makes belief in one god one of the state ideology s five principles and is used to support national unity and religious harmony 338 religious minorities still face discrimination including through local religious bylaws social pressure and restrictions on worship 339 340 indonesia has more muslims than any other country 341 with 251 million muslims in 2025 or 87 15 of the population 3 i protestants and catholics together made up 10 44 of the population 3 and christians form majorities in several eastern provinces 344 hindus accounted for 1 66 and are concentrated in bali 3 334 while buddhists accounted for 0 69 and are found mainly among chinese indonesians though not exclusively 3 345 many local belief systems predate major world religions and continue alongside them 346 347 they include beliefs in ancestors spirits and powers associated with nature 348 349 traditions such as sunda wiwitan kejawèn and kaharingan continue in different forms within or alongside the recognised religions 350 351 352 in java and bali islam and hinduism also absorbed older customs and ritual practices 353 354 education main article education in indonesia university of indonesia in depok indonesia s education system includes more than 50 million students and over 250 000 schools 355 it is managed across ministries responsible for school education higher education and religious education j and follows a 6 3 3 4 structure six years of elementary school three years each of junior and senior secondary school and four years of tertiary education 356 since independence schools have supported national integration through indonesian language instruction national curricula and civic education 357 access to education and school quality vary particularly between urban and rural areas and among regions with differing levels of development 358 359 teacher quality and distribution are also persistent issues 360 student learning outcomes are also low by oecd benchmarks in pisa 2022 indonesian 15 year olds performed below oecd averages in mathematics reading and science with most not reaching the minimum proficiency level in each subject 361 government spending on education accounted for approximately 1 3 of gdp in 2023 362 in 2022 indonesia had 4 481 higher education institutions including universities islamic institutions service colleges and open universities 363 the university of indonesia gadjah mada university and the bandung institute of technology are among the country s highest ranked public universities in international rankings 364 higher education has expanded since 1990 and contributes to better employment but access participation and institutional quality are uneven 365 366 healthcare main article healthcare in indonesia dr cipto mangunkusumo hospital in jakarta primary care is provided mainly through community health centres puskesmas and primary care hospitals 367 in 2014 indonesia launched jaminan kesehatan nasional jkn one of the world s largest single payer health insurance systems that covered 98 of the population by 2024 despite the near universal coverage where people live still affects the availability of care and healthcare personnel 368 life expectancy increased between 1990 and 2019 from 62 5 to 69 4 years for men and from 65 7 to 73 5 years for women but there are substantial differences between provinces 369 indonesia faces a double burden of disease non communicable conditions have become increasingly prominent in overall health loss and infectious diseases continue to contribute substantially to disability and early mortality 370 stunting prevalence among children was 21 6 in 2022 371 culture main article culture of indonesia see also national intangible cultural heritage of indonesia and public holidays in indonesia indonesia s cultures differ across islands languages and communities older populations and later austronesian migrations contributed to this diversity with papuan and melanesian populations prominent in the east 372 373 movement by sea placed the indonesian archipelago within trading and migration networks involving indian arab persian chinese and mainland southeast asian peoples followed later by europeans religious and courtly influences entered through these routes and european expansion ultimately brought colonial domination coastal commercial centres often encountered outside influences before they reached inland communities 374 375 indonesia has no single uniform cultural tradition regional traditions are tied to particular languages and local cultures while pan indonesian forms generally use indonesian and are intended for audiences across regional and ethnic boundaries 376 377 these traditions include performance visual art ritual clothing food and literature 378 modern popular culture includes cinema television drama music celebrity media and reality shows along with imported asian dramas and global formats adapted for indonesian audiences 379 indonesia has 16 items on the unesco intangible cultural heritage lists including wayang puppet theatre batik angklung the saman dance and pencak silat recent joint nominations have added pantun kebaya and kolintang to the list 380 visual arts and architecture main articles indonesian art architecture of indonesia national costume of indonesia and indonesian painting an indonesian batik indonesian visual arts include textiles puppetry masks carving and painting 381 textiles are used in rituals and can convey social standing and ethnic affiliation colonial rule and nationalism affected the development of modern painting and tourism and urban art communities became increasingly important later in the 20th century 382 regional painting traditions include bali s classical kamasan tradition a narrative form often described as wayang painting 383 sculptural traditions range from megalithic monuments 28 to ngaju dayak hampatong figures and asmat artefacts serving commemorative protective aesthetic or spiritual functions 384 385 indonesian architecture ranges from everyday houses to ritual houses rumah adat whose layouts posts roofs heirlooms and construction rites can express ancestry status and local beliefs 386 regional forms include the javanese pendapa dayak longhouses minangkabau rumah gadang and toraja tongkonan 387 monumental religious architecture includes borobudur and prambanan 388 389 while surviving hindu and buddhist sculpture from the 8th to 15th centuries includes works in stone bronze and gold 390 clothing traditions differ by region and are used in ceremonies weddings formal occasions and as markers of local identity 391 batik and kebaya are widely used in national and formal dress and are especially prominent in javanese culture 392 other regional textile traditions include minangkabau gold thread textiles and distinctive ikat traditions among batak and many eastern indonesian communities such textiles are used at formal events in bridal exchange ceremonies and weddings 393 performing arts main articles music of indonesia dance in indonesia and theatre of indonesia the pandavas and krishna in an act of the wayang wong performance indonesian music and dance include court village ritual and popular forms gamelan traditions are centred especially in java and bali while angklung and other bamboo ensembles are used in western java banyumas and other regions drums gongs lutes singing and music accompanying dance also appear across the archipelago 394 islamic musical forms include gambus and qasida 395 while popular genres include keroncong and dangdut 396 which grew from melayu music and draws on indian arabic and western pop and rock elements 397 dance traditions are practiced for different purposes across regions mask dances appear in javanese court drama and balinese ritual performance while dayak mask dances are performed in agricultural rituals and communal ceremonial settings 398 javanese court dance includes forms such as bedhaya and serimpi while other local dances are associated with theatre and music spirit possession harvests temple festivals cremation ceremonies and commemorations of the dead 399 contemporary performers also adapt global forms 400 401 traditional indonesian theatre encompasses storytelling music movement puppetry masks acting and dance 402 wayang is a prominent puppet theatre tradition in java that is also practiced in bali led by a dalang and accompanied by gamelan music its repertory frequently reworks episodes from the ramayana and mahabharata 403 404 it has served ritual moral comic political and public messaging functions 405 406 other regional traditions combine drama with music dance masks or martial arts 407 and modern theatre groups have used their performances for social and political commentary 408 409 literature main article indonesian literature cover of the 1937 issue of poedjangga baroe an influential indonesian literary magazine literary traditions in indonesia developed in many regional languages and included both oral and written forms 410 411 oral traditions ranged from storytelling to songs customs beliefs and other community forms while material could pass between oral and written transmission 412 traditional written literature included court chronicles religious and legal writing narrative prose and verse such forms often served ethical religious or dynastic purposes rather than entertainment 413 modern indonesian literature grew in the early 20th century alongside the expansion of literacy publishing and a wider reading public 414 balai pustaka established in 1917 distributed books and maintained libraries and agencies across the archipelago which gave new writers access to wider circulation 415 during this period prose fiction and poetry became more prominent displacing some older literary forms 416 from 1933 pujangga baru provided another venue for literary and cultural writing publishing essays poetry short stories and longer prose before the japanese occupation 417 newspapers magazines and other publications also carried indonesian language prose and poetry during the prewar period 418 in the 1970s and 1980s newspapers and magazines were important outlets for literature with regular sections carrying poetry short stories criticism and serial fiction 419 from the late 1990s some forms of literary activity began to emerge in digital media with websites mailing lists forums and blogs providing spaces for literary communities and for publication 420 post 1998 literary production has also faced fewer state restrictions 421 with writers able to engage more openly with previously sensitive subjects such as sexuality and stronger religious expressions 422 cinema and mass media main articles cinema of indonesia and mass media in indonesia loetoeng kasaroeng 1926 the first film produced in the netherlands east indies indonesian film production began during the dutch colonial era with loetoeng kasaroeng 1926 and a national film industry developed and expanded after independence 423 film became a vehicle for nationalist and anti colonial politics under sukarno 424 while the new order regulated and censored cinema 425 the domestic industry of the 1970s and 1980s declined sharply in the early 1990s 426 after 1998 independent filmmakers film communities festivals and renewed commercial production helped revive indonesian cinema 427 428 however censorship and pressure from non state actors still limited expression 429 during the new order newspapers and broadcasters operated under licensing and censorship 430 and television was used to advance state led development and a unified vision of national identity 431 in the reformasi period the 1999 press law prohibited censorship publication bans and licensing requirements but journalists and media organisations still face legal cases political pressure violence and other forms of intimidation 432 internet use grew rapidly from the mid 1990s and websites became another means of distributing news and information 433 434 mainstream media increasingly uses the same reporting across television print and online outlets either through integrated newsrooms or by sharing content between them news is also shortened or reformatted for websites and social media 435 cuisine main article indonesian cuisine nasi padang with rendang gulai and vegetables an example of minangkabau cuisine indonesian cuisine differs from one region to another in its ingredients methods and flavours indian chinese middle eastern portuguese dutch and other foreign influences have become part of local cooking traditions 436 437 rice is the staple food in much of the country ...
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