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ealand established in 1977 research gathered at goat bay documented the spillover effect spillover and larval export the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the reserve have become central concepts of marine conservation this positively impacted commercial fishermen in surrounding areas 114 another unexpected result of mpas is their impact on predatory marine species which in some conditions can increase in population when this occurs prey populations decrease one study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases trophic cascades caused a decrease in herbivores which led to an increase in the quantity of plant life this occurred in the malindi kisite and watamu marian national parks in kenya the leigh marine reserve in new zealand and brackett s landing conservation area in the us 115 success criteria edit both cbd and iucn have criteria for setting up and maintaining mpa networks which emphasize four factors 116 adequacy ensuring that the sites have the size shape and distribution to ensure the success of selected species representability protection for all of the local environment s biological processes resilience the resistance of the system to natural disaster such as a tsunami or flood connectivity maintaining population links across nearby mpas misconceptions edit misconceptions about mpas include the belief that all mpas are no take or no fishing areas less than 1 percent of us waters are no take areas mpa activities can include consumption fishing diving and other activities another misconception is that most mpas are federally managed instead mpas are managed under hundreds of laws and jurisdictions they can exist in state commonwealth territory and tribal waters another misconception is that a federal mandate dedicates a set percentage of ocean to mpas instead the mandate requires an evaluation of current mpas and creates a public resource on current mpas 117 criticism edit land use right edit some existing and proposed mpas have been criticized by indigenous populations and their supporters as impinging on land usage rights for example the proposed chagos protected area in the chagos islands is contested by chagossians deported from their homeland in 1965 by the british as part of the creation of the british indian ocean territory biot according to leaked diplomatic cables 118 the uk proposed that the biot become a marine reserve with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint uk us military base on diego garcia island climate change edit oceans are the primary carbon sink and have been greatly affected by global warming especially in recent years the ability of existing mpa designs to cope with changes in marine biodiversity due to ocean acidification sea level rise sea surface temperature increase oxygen reduction and other marine environmental issues remains questionable 119 120 121 122 123 despite differences in species adaptations warming has affected the habitats of some marine species such as corals to move from lower to higher latitudes 119 120 if mpa assumes a relatively stable ecological environment within the area as before it may become ineffective when the range of species distribution changes or becomes extensive 121 hence there s need to incorporate the climate change adaptation to the framework displaced fishing effort edit many fisheries scientists and managers have argued that no take mpas may not benefit biodiversity because they displace fishing effort outside the mpa 124 however work accounting for displaced fishing effort has suggested that even when the same total amount of fish are caught across the seascape mpas can lead to a net biodiversity gain if sensitive species are present 125 even when the bycatch species do not fully overlap the distribution of the fished species 126 however there are other potential undesirable impacts of displaced fishing effort such as increased cost to fishers 127 other critiques edit other critiques include their cost higher than that of passive management conflicts with human development goals inadequate scope to address factors such as climate change and invasive species 58 in scotland environmental groups have criticised the government for failing to enforce fishing rules around mpas 128 see also edit oceans portal ecology portal environment portal list of marine protected areas eco hotels as funding vehicles for marine protection initiatives hope spots marine areas rich in biodiversity important marine mammal area law of the sea marine park marine spatial planning special protection area specially protected areas of mediterranean importance united states national marine sanctuary references edit marine protection atlas mpatlas org retrieved 2022 11 15 1 2 what is a marine protected area oceanservice noaa gov retrieved 4 june 2019 in the u s mpas span a range of habitats including the open ocean coastal areas inter tidal zones estuaries and the great lakes 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yuyu zhang dian yu weiwei chen bin 2020 china s ...
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