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arvests in the mesopotamian creation myth an era of civilization is inaugurated by the grain goddess ashnan 8 the roman goddess ceres presided over agriculture grain crops fertility and motherhood 9 the term cereal is derived from latin cerealis of grain originally meaning of the goddess ceres 10 several gods of antiquity combined agriculture and war the hittite sun goddess of arinna the canaanite lahmu and the roman janus 11 complex civilizations arose where cereal agriculture created a surplus allowing for part of the harvest to be appropriated from farmers allowing power to be concentrated in cities 12 modern edit further information green revolution rice fields in india india s participation in the green revolution helped resolve food shortages in the mid twentieth century 13 14 between 1964 and 2023 cereal production increased by 213 mostly through higher yields harvested area rose only by 10 15 yields of wheat and rice rose in the green revolution a technological change funded by development organizations 16 the strategies included mechanized tilling monoculture nitrogen fertilizers and breeding of new strains of seeds these innovations fended off starvation and increased yield per plant but paid less attention to nutritional quality 17 the high yield cereal crops tend to have low quality proteins with essential amino acid deficiencies are high in carbohydrates and lack balanced essential fatty acids vitamins and minerals 17 so called ancient grains and heirloom varieties grew in popularity with the organic movements of the early 21st century but there is a tradeoff in yield per plant putting pressure on resource poor areas as food crops are replaced with cash crops 18 grain based foods are fundamental dietary staples in many regions worldwide serving as primary sources of energy and essential nutrients consequently reductions in cereal production are the most significant contributors to losses in energy and essential micronutrients such as iron zinc magnesium phosphorus thiamin and riboflavin 19 biology edit structure of a cereal wheat a plant b ripe ear of grains 1 spikelet before flowering 2 the same flowering and spread enlarged 3 flowers with glumes 4 stamens 5 pollen 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales 8 and 9 parts of the scar 10 fruit husks 11 14 grains natural size and enlarged cereals are grasses in the poaceae family that produce edible grains a cereal grain is botanically a caryopsis a fruit where the seed coat is fused with the pericarp 20 21 grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks 22 the lower part of each leaf encloses the stem forming a leaf sheath the leaf grows from the base of the blade an adaptation that protects the growing meristem from grazing animals 22 23 the flowers are usually hermaphroditic with the exception of maize and mainly anemophilous or wind pollinated although insects occasionally play a role 22 24 among the best known cereals are maize rice wheat barley sorghum millet oat rye and triticale 25 some other grains are colloquially called cereals even though they are not grasses these pseudocereals include buckwheat quinoa and amaranth 26 cultivation edit sources of variation in cereal production 1964 2023 all cereal crops are cultivated in a similar way most are annual so after sowing they are harvested just once 27 an exception is rice which although usually treated as an annual can survive as a perennial producing a ratoon crop 28 cereals adapted to a temperate climate such as barley oats rye spelt triticale and wheat are called cool season cereals those preferring a tropical climate such as millet and sorghum are called warm season cereals 27 29 30 cool season cereals especially rye followed by barley are hardy they grow best in fairly cool weather and stop growing depending on variety when the temperature goes above around 30 c or 85 f warm season cereals in contrast require hot weather and cannot tolerate frost 27 cool season cereals can be grown in highlands in the tropics where they sometimes deliver several crops in a single year 27 planting edit newly planted rice in a paddy field in the tropics warm season cereals can be grown at any time of the year in temperate zones these cereals can only be grown when there is no frost most cereals are planted in tilled soils which reduces weeds and breaks up the surface of a field most cereals need regular water in the early part of their life cycle rice is commonly grown in flooded fields 31 though some strains are grown on dry land 32 other warm climate cereals such as sorghum are adapted to arid conditions 33 cool season cereals are grown mainly in temperate zones these cereals often have both winter varieties for autumn sowing winter dormancy and early summer harvesting and spring varieties planted in spring and harvested in late summer winter varieties have the advantage of using water when it is plentiful and permitting a second crop after the early harvest they flower only in spring as they require vernalization exposure to cold for a specific period fixed genetically spring crops grow when it is warmer but less rainy so they may need irrigation 27 growth edit fusarium graminearum damages many cereals here wheat where it causes wheat scab right cereal strains are bred for consistency and resilience to the local environmental conditions the greatest constraint on yield are plant diseases especially rusts mostly the puccinia spp and powdery mildews 34 fusarium head blight caused by fusarium graminearum is a significant limitation on a wide variety of cereals 35 other pressures include pest insects and wildlife like rodents and deer 36 37 in conventional agriculture some farmers apply fungicides or pesticides harvesting edit annual cereals die when they have come to seed and dry up harvesting begins once the plants and seeds are dry enough harvesting in mechanized agricultural systems is by combine harvester a machine which drives across the field in a single pass in which it cuts the stalks and then threshes and winnows the grain 27 38 in traditional agricultural systems mostly in the global south harvesting may be by hand using tools such as scythes and grain cradles 27 leftover parts of the plant can be allowed to decompose or collected as straw this can be used for animal bedding mulch and a growing medium for mushrooms 39 it is used in crafts such as building with cob or straw bale construction 40 a small scale rice combine harvester in japan preprocessing and storage edit if cereals are not completely dry when harvested such as when the weather is rainy the stored grain will be spoilt by mould fungi such as aspergillus and penicillium 27 41 this can be prevented by drying it artificially it may then be stored in a grain elevator or silo to be sold later grain stores need to be constructed to protect the grain from damage by pests such as seed eating birds and rodents 27 peeling maize in zambia grain elevators on a farm in israel processing edit an indigenous mexican woman prepares maize tortillas 2013 when the cereal is ready to be distributed it is sold to a manufacturing facility that first removes the outer layers of the grain for subsequent milling for flour or other processing steps to produce foods such as flour oatmeal or pearl barley 42 in developing countries processing may be traditional in artisanal workshops as with tortilla production in central america 43 most cereals can be processed in a variety of ways rice processing for instance can create whole grain or polished rice or rice flour removal of the germ increases the longevity of grain in storage 44 some grains can be malted a process of activating enzymes in the seed to cause sprouting that turns the complex starches into sugars before drying 45 these sugars can be extracted for industrial uses and further processing such as for making industrial alcohol 46 beer 47 whisky 48 or rice wine 49 or sold directly as a sugar 50 in the 20th century industrial processes developed around chemically altering the grain to be used for other processes in particular maize can be altered to produce food additives such as corn starch 51 and high fructose corn syrup 52 effects on the environment edit impacts edit further information environmental impact of agriculture harvesting kernza a perennial cereal developed in the 21st century because it grows back every year farmers no longer have to till the soil cereal production has a substantial impact on the environment tillage can lead to soil erosion and increased runoff 53 irrigation consumes large quantities of water its extraction from lakes rivers or aquifers may have multiple environmental effects such as lowering the water table and cause salination of aquifers 54 fertilizer production contributes to global warming 55 and its use can lead to pollution and eutrophication of waterways 56 arable farming uses large amounts of fossil fuel releasing greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming 57 pesticide usage can cause harm to wildlife such as to bees 58 mitigations edit further information sustainable agriculture excellent soil structure in land in south dakota with no till farming using a crop rotation of maize soybeans and wheat accompanied by cover crops the main crop has been harvested but the roots of the cover crop are still visible in autumn some of the impacts of growing cereals can be mitigated by changing production practices tillage can be reduced by no till farming such as by direct drilling of cereal seeds or by developing and planting perennial crop varieties so that annual tilling is not required rice can be grown as a ratoon crop 28 and other researchers are exploring perennial cool season cereals such as kernza being developed in the us 59 fertilizer and pesticide usage may be reduced in some polycultures growing several crops in a single field at the same time 60 fossil fuel based nitrogen fertilizer usage can be reduced by intercropping cereals with legumes which fix nitrogen 61 greenhouse gas emissions may be cut further by more efficient irrigation or by water harvesting methods like contour trenching that reduce the need for irrigation and by breeding new crop varieties 62 uses edit direct consumption edit some cereals such as rice require little preparation before human consumption for example to make plain cooked rice raw milled rice is washed and boiled 63 foods such as porridge 64 and muesli may be made largely of whole cereals especially oats whereas commercial breakfast cereals such as granola may be highly processed and combined with sugars oils and other products 65 flour based foods edit main article flour various cereals and their products cereals can be ground to make flour wheat flour is the main ingredient of bread and pasta 66 67 68 maize flour has been important in mesoamerica since ancient times with foods such as mexican tortillas and tamales 69 rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern europe 70 while rice flour is common in asia 71 a cereal grain consists of starchy endosperm germ and bran wholemeal flour contains all of these white flour is without some or all of the germ or bran 72 73 alcohol edit further information beer and ethanol fermentation because cereals have a high starch content they are often used to make industrial alcohol 46 and alcoholic drinks by fermentation for instance beer is produced by brewing and fermenting starch mainly from cereal grains most commonly malted barley 47 rice wines such as japanese sake are brewed in asia 74 a fermented rice and honey wine was made in china some 9 000 years ago 49 animal feed edit further information animal feed share of cereals used for animal feed chickens eating cereal rich feed 75 cereals and their related byproducts such as hay are routinely fed to farm animals common cereals as animal food include maize barley wheat and oats moist grains may be treated chemically or made into silage mechanically flattened or crimped and kept in airtight storage until used or stored dry with a moisture content of less than 14 76 commercially grains are often combined with other materials and formed into feed pellets 77 nutrition edit whole grain and processed edit whole grains as used in this bread have more of the original seed making them more nutritious but more prone to spoilage in storage 78 as whole grains cereals provide carbohydrates polyunsaturated fats protein vitamins and minerals when processed by the removal of the bran and germ all that remains is the starchy endosperm 72 nutrients added to cereal during nutritional fortification include iron calcium zinc and folate 79 in some developing countries cereals constitute a majority of daily sustenance in developed countries cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial primarily in the form of refined and processed grains 80 amino acid balance edit further information complete protein and protein combining some cereals are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine obliging vegetarian cultures to combine their diet of cereal grains with legumes to obtain a balanced diet many legumes however are deficient in the essential amino acid methionine which grains contain thus a combination of legumes with grains forms a well balanced diet for vegetarians such combinations include dal lentils with rice by south indians and bengalis beans with maize tortillas tofu with rice and peanut butter with wholegrain wheat bread as sandwiches in several other cultures including the americas 81 for feeding animals the amount of crude protein measured in grains is expressed as grain crude protein concentration 82 comparison of major cereals edit nutritional values for some major cereals 83 per 45g serving barley maize millet oats rice rye sorgh wheat energy kcal 159 163 170 175 165 152 148 153 protein g 5 6 3 6 5 0 7 6 3 4 4 6 4 8 6 1 lipid g 1 1 6 1 9 3 1 1 4 0 7 1 6 1 1 carbohydrate g 33 35 31 30 31 34 32 32 fibre g 7 8 3 3 3 8 4 8 1 6 6 8 3 0 4 8 calcium mg 15 3 4 24 4 11 6 15 iron mg 1 6 1 5 1 3 2 1 0 6 1 2 1 5 1 6 magnesium mg 60 57 51 80 52 50 74 65 phosphorus mg 119 108 128 235 140 149 130 229 potassium mg 203 129 88 193 112 230 163 194 sodium mg 5 16 2 1 2 1 1 1 zinc mg 1 2 0 8 0 8 1 8 1 0 1 2 0 7 1 9 thiamine b1 mg 0 29 0 17 0 19 0 34 0 24 0 14 0 15 0 19 riboflavin b2 mg 0 13 0 09 0 13 0 06 0 04 0 11 0 04 0 05 niacin b3 mg 2 1 6 2 1 0 4 2 9 1 9 1 7 3 0 pantothenic acid b5 mg 0 1 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 7 0 7 0 2 0 4 pyridoxine b6 mg 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 05 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 folic acid b9 mcg 9 11 38 25 10 17 9 19 production and trade commodities edit a grain elevator on fire in ukraine 2023 the russian invasion of ukraine disrupted its wheat exports and the global cereal trade cereals constitute the world s largest commodities by tonnage whether measured by production 84 or by international trade several major producers of cereals dominate the market 85 because of the scale of the trade some count...
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