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ts are skipped and the execution sequence continues from the statement following them unconditional branching statements allow an execution sequence to be transferred to another part of a program these include the jump called goto in many languages switch and the subprogram subroutine or procedure call which usually returns to the next statement after the call early in the development of high level programming languages the introduction of the block enabled the construction of programs in which a group of statements and declarations could be treated as if they were one statement this alongside the introduction of subroutines enabled complex structures to be expressed by hierarchical decomposition into simpler procedural structures history of imperative and object oriented languages edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed june 2026 learn how and when to remove this message the earliest imperative languages were the machine languages of the original computers in these languages instructions were very simple which made hardware implementation easier but hindered the creation of complex programs fortran developed by john backus at international business machines ibm starting in 1954 was the first major programming language to remove the obstacles presented by machine code in the creation of complex programs fortran was a compiled language that allowed named variables complex expressions subprograms and many other features now common in imperative languages the next two decades saw the development of many other major high level imperative programming languages in the late 1950s and 1960s algol was developed in order to allow mathematical algorithms to be more easily expressed and even served as the operating system s target language for some computers mumps 1966 carried the imperative paradigm to a logical extreme by not having any statements at all relying purely on commands even to the extent of making the if and else commands independent of each other connected only by an intrinsic variable named test cobol 1960 and basic 1964 were both attempts to make programming syntax look more like english in the 1970s pascal was developed by niklaus wirth and c was created by dennis ritchie while he was working at bell laboratories wirth went on to design modula 2 and oberon for the needs of the united states department of defense jean ichbiah and a team at honeywell began designing ada in 1978 after a 4 year project to define the requirements for the language the specification was first published in 1983 with revisions in 1995 2005 and 2012 the 1980s saw a rapid growth in interest in object oriented programming these languages were imperative in style but added features to support objects the last two decades of the 20th century saw the development of many such languages smalltalk 80 originally conceived by alan kay in 1969 was released in 1980 by the xerox palo alto research center parc drawing from concepts in another object oriented language simula which is considered the world s first object oriented programming language developed in the 1960s bjarne stroustrup designed c an object oriented language based on c design of c began in 1979 and the first implementation was completed in 1983 in the late 1980s and 1990s the notable imperative languages drawing on object oriented concepts were perl released by larry wall in 1987 python released by guido van rossum in 1990 visual basic and visual c which included microsoft foundation class library mfc 2 0 released by microsoft in 1991 and 1993 respectively php released by rasmus lerdorf in 1994 java by james gosling sun microsystems in 1995 javascript by brendan eich netscape and ruby by yukihiro matz matsumoto both released in 1995 microsoft s net framework 2002 is imperative at its core as are its main target languages vb net and c that run on it however microsoft s f a functional language also runs on it examples edit fortran edit fortran 1958 was unveiled as the ibm mathematical formula translating system it was designed for scientific calculations without string handling facilities along with declarations expressions and statements it supported arrays subroutines do loops it succeeded because programming and debugging costs were below computer running costs it was supported by ibm applications at the time were scientific 3 however non ibm vendors also wrote fortran compilers but with a syntax that would likely fail ibm s compiler 3 the american national standards institute ansi developed the first fortran standard in 1966 in 1978 fortran 77 became the standard until 1991 fortran 90 supports records pointers to arrays cobol edit cobol 1959 stands for common business oriented language fortran manipulated symbols it was soon realized that symbols did not need to be numbers so strings were introduced 4 the us department of defense influenced cobol s development with grace hopper being a major contributor the statements were english like and verbose the goal was to design a language so managers could read the programs however the lack of structured statements hindered this goal 5 development of cobol was tightly controlled so dialects did not emerge to require ansi standards as a consequence it was not changed for 15 years until 1974 the 1990s version did make consequential changes like object oriented programming 5 algol edit algol 1960 stands for algorithmic language it had a profound influence on programming language design 6 emerging from a committee of european and american programming language experts it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable structured design algol was first to define its syntax using the backus naur form 6 this led to syntax directed compilers it added features like block structure where variables were local to their block arrays with variable bounds for loops functions recursion 6 algol s direct descendants include pascal modula 2 ada delphi and oberon on one branch on another branch there s c c and java 6 basic edit basic 1964 stands for beginner s all purpose symbolic instruction code it was developed at dartmouth college for all of their students to learn 7 if a student did not go on to a more powerful language the student would still remember basic 7 a basic interpreter was installed in the microcomputers manufactured in the late 1970s as the microcomputer industry grew so did the language 7 basic pioneered the interactive session 7 it offered operating system commands within its environment the new command created an empty slate statements evaluated immediately statements could be programmed by preceding them with a line number the list command displayed the program the run command executed the program however the basic syntax was too simple for large programs 7 recent dialects added structure and object oriented extensions microsoft s visual basic is still widely used and produces a graphical user interface 8 c edit c programming language 1973 got its name because the language bcpl was replaced with b and at t bell labs called the next version c its purpose was to write the unix operating system 9 c is a relatively small language making it easy to write compilers its growth mirrored the hardware growth in the 1980s 9 its growth also was because it has the facilities of assembly language but uses a high level syntax it added advanced features like inline assembler arithmetic on pointers pointers to functions bit operations freely combining complex operators 9 computer memory map c allows the programmer to control in which region of memory data is to be stored global variables and static variables require the fewest clock cycles to store the stack is automatically used for the standard variable declarations heap memory is returned to a pointer variable from the malloc function the global and static data region is located just above the program region the program region is technically called the text region it s where machine instructions are stored the global and static data region is technically two regions 10 one region is called the initialized data segment where variables declared with default values are stored the other region is called the block started by segment where variables declared without default values are stored variables stored in the global and static data region have their addresses set at compile time they retain their values throughout the life of the process the global and static region stores the global variables that are declared on top of outside the main function 11 global variables are visible to main and every other function in the source code on the other hand variable declarations inside of main other functions or within block delimiters are local variables local variables also include formal parameter variables parameter variables are enclosed within the parenthesis of function definitions 12 they provide an interface to the function local variables declared using the static prefix are also stored in the global and static data region 10 unlike global variables static variables are only visible within the function or block static variables always retain their value an example usage would be the function int increment_counter static int counter 0 counter return counter the stack region is a contiguous block of memory located near the top memory address 13 variables placed in the stack are populated from top to bottom 13 a stack pointer is a special purpose register that keeps track of the last memory address populated 13 variables are placed into the stack via the assembly language push instruction therefore the addresses of these variables are set during runtime the method for stack variables to lose their scope is via the pop instruction local variables declared without the static prefix including formal parameter variables 14 are called automatic variables 11 and are stored in the stack 10 they are visible inside the function or block and lose their scope upon exiting the function or block the heap region is located below the stack 10 it is populated from the bottom to the top the operating system manages the heap using a heap pointer and a list of allocated memory blocks 15 like the stack the addresses of heap variables are set during runtime an out of memory error occurs when the heap pointer and the stack pointer meet c provides the malloc library function to allocate heap memory 16 populating the heap with data is an additional copy function variables stored in the heap are economically passed to functions using pointers without pointers the entire block of data would have to be passed to the function via the stack c edit in the 1970s software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules 17 one obvious feature was to decompose large projects physically into separate files a less obvious feature was to decompose large projects logically into abstract datatypes 17 at the time languages supported concrete scalar datatypes like integer numbers floating point numbers and strings of characters concrete datatypes have their representation as part of their name 18 abstract datatypes are structures of concrete datatypes with a new name assigned for example a list of integers could be called integer_list in object oriented jargon abstract datatypes are called classes however a class is only a definition no memory is allocated when memory is allocated to a class it s called an object 19 object oriented imperative languages developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe functional programming 20 a function in an object oriented language is assigned to a class an assigned function is then referred to as a method member function or operation object oriented programming is executing operations on objects 21 object oriented languages support a syntax to model subset superset relationships in set theory an element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset for example a student is a person therefore the set of students is a subset of the set of persons as a result students inherit all the attributes common to all persons additionally students have unique attributes that other persons don t have object oriented languages model subset superset relationships using inheritance 22 object oriented programming became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s 17 c 1985 was originally called c with classes 23 it was designed to expand c s capabilities by adding the object oriented facilities of the language simula 24 an object oriented module is composed of two files the definitions file is called the header file here is a c header file for the grade class in a simple school application grade h used to allow multiple source files to include this header file without duplication errors see https en wikipedia org wiki include_guard ifndef grade_h define grade_h class grade public this is the constructor operation grade const char letter this is a class variable char letter this is a member operation int grade_numeric const char letter this is a class variable int numeric endif a constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name 25 it is executed when the calling operation executes the new statement a module s other file is the source file here is a c source file for the grade class in a simple school application grade cpp include grade h grade grade const char letter reference the object using the keyword this this letter letter this is temporal cohesion this numeric grade_numeric letter int grade grade_numeric const char letter if letter a letter a return 4 else if letter b letter b return 3 else if letter c letter c return 2 else if letter d letter d return 1 else if letter f letter f return 0 else return 1 here is a c header file for the person class in a simple school application person h ifndef person_h define person_h class person public person const char name const char name endif here is a c source file for the person class in a simple school application person cpp include person h person person const char name this name name here is a c header file for the student class in a simple school application student h ifndef student_h define student_h include person h include grade h a student is a subset of person class student public person public student const char name student grade grade endif here is a c source file for the student class in a simple school application student cpp include student h include person h student student const char name execute the constructor of the person superclass person name nothing else to do student student deallocate grade s memory to avoid memory leaks delete this grade here is a driver program for demonstration student_dvr cpp include iostream include student h int main void student student new student the student student grade new grade a std cout notice stu...
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