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830 before european arrival spices from maluku were already traded through asian maritime networks in which javanese and other regional merchants participated 50 51 the portuguese captured malacca in 1511 and reached maluku the following year where they sought control of the spice trade 52 dutch expeditions followed in the 1590s and in 1602 competing dutch companies were merged into the dutch east india company vereenigde oost indische compagnie voc its charter authorised it to wage war build fortresses and conclude treaties in asia 53 in 1619 the voc captured jayakarta present day jakarta renamed it batavia and turned it into its headquarters it developed as an administrative and commercial centre and attracted chinese migrants and others from the archipelago 54 55 the voc was dissolved in 1800 and its possessions were passed to the dutch state 56 during the 19th century dutch power expanded across the archipelago and met sustained resistance in java sumatra bali and aceh 57 in western new guinea the dutch established an outpost in 1828 abandoned it in 1836 and began permanent occupation only after 1898 58 by the early 20th century military campaigns and boundary agreements had established dutch control over a territory that largely corresponded to present day indonesia known then as the netherlands indies 59 the colonial administration ruled several territories directly and governed others through local states whose rulers retained limited authority under dutch supremacy 59 the ethical policy became an official programme in 1901 and expanded vernacular schooling irrigation and other public services 60 western style schooling also expanded but it reached only a small minority of the population 61 during this period several political organisations were founded including budi utomo in 1908 and sarekat islam in 1912 62 followed by the communist party of indonesia pki in 1920 and the indonesian national party pni in 1927 63 the great depression reached the colony in the early 1930s and had a major social and economic impact 64 colonial restrictions on nationalist activity became stricter and by the mid 1930s sukarno mohammad hatta sutan sjahrir and other non cooperative nationalist leaders had been imprisoned or exiled 65 emergence of indonesia and independence main articles indonesian national awakening and indonesian national revolution indonesian nationalists riding through the streets november 1945 a shared national identity began developing through youth associations and a growing literature in the malay language which had long been a lingua franca that did not favour any single ethnic group nationalists increasingly called the language bahasa indonesia and made it a common medium for the emerging nation 66 at the second youth congress in batavia in october 1928 delegates pledged allegiance to one homeland and one nation indonesia and recognised indonesian as the language of unity 67 68 dutch colonial rule collapsed when japan conquered the colony in 1942 69 the occupation imposed martial law banned political parties and mobilised indonesians through japanese sponsored civil and quasi military organisations 70 wartime shortages and forced labour caused widespread hardship but the ban on the dutch language strengthened the public use of indonesian 71 72 japanese sponsored forces such as peta and the sumatran giyugun trained tens of thousands of indonesians 73 a day after the atomic bombing of hiroshima japanese authorities permitted indonesian leaders to prepare for institutions and a constitution for an independent state scheduled in september 1945 74 japan surrendered to the allies on 15 august 1945 two days later sukarno proclaimed indonesian independence with hatta co signing the declaration 75 76 they were named president and vice president on 18 august 77 dutch attempts to restore colonial rule led to a four year military and diplomatic struggle 78 international opposition intensified after the dutch offensive of december 1948 and the united states subsequently pressed the netherlands into negotiations recommended by the united nations 79 on 27 december 1949 the netherlands transferred sovereignty except over western new guinea to the federal united states of indonesia 80 81 the federal states soon dissolved and a unitary republic was proclaimed on 17 august 1950 81 sukarno era and suharto s new order main articles liberal democracy period in indonesia guided democracy in indonesia and new order indonesia sukarno left and suharto right indonesia s first two presidents indonesia adopted parliamentary government under the 1950 provisional constitution 82 the 1955 election produced no durable governing majority and did not end the persistent political crisis 83 in february 1958 dissidents in west sumatra proclaimed its own government before being joined by rebels in sulawesi they were seeking changes to the republic rather than separation but were defeated by the central government 84 after the constituent assembly failed to secure the required majority for a permanent constitution sukarno dissolved it by decree in 1959 and restored the 1945 constitution 85 this established the guided democracy which strengthened presidential authority reduced the role of political parties and curtailed regional autonomy 86 under this new system sukarno expanded the military s political role while supporting the growing pki as a counterweight 82 his campaign against dutch rule in western new guinea led to the new york agreement in 1962 and indonesian administration of the territory in 1963 87 88 after the 30 september movement killed six generals in 1965 army general suharto s forces took control of jakarta and the military presented the movement as a pki coup 89 90 the ensuing anti communist campaign spread across several regions with army units working alongside or directing civilian groups 91 90 at least 500 000 people were killed and hundreds of thousands were detained d 95 96 the campaign destroyed the pki and shifted power to the army 97 the supersemar order in 1966 gave suharto de facto control over key executive and security powers an effective transfer of power from sukarno 98 suharto s new order restricted political organisation embedded the military in government and used his political party golkar and a tightly controlled party system to dominate elections 99 the act of free choice in 1969 formally incorporated western new guinea into indonesia however just over a thousand selected community leaders took part in it amid reports of military intimidation 100 many papuans opposed this integration and armed resistance has continued since then 101 102 in 1975 indonesia invaded portuguese timor and annexed the territory the following year 103 in aceh hasan di tiro founded the free aceh movement gam in 1976 and declared independence from indonesia the insurgency was largely suppressed by 1979 but revived in 1989 after the return of fighters trained in libya prompting a decade long military campaign 104 the new order reopened the economy to foreign capital and pursued industrialisation through investment foreign aid and state development plans 105 manufacturing expanded and the number of people below the official poverty line fell substantially by the mid 1990s 106 at the same time conglomerates controlled by suharto s family and close associates accumulated extensive wealth 107 108 the asian financial crisis of 1997 98 caused sharp economic downturn 109 110 followed by protests and unrest in several cities including jakarta medan and surakarta this culminated in suharto s resignation in may 1998 111 in a un supervised referendum in 1999 a majority of east timorese voters rejected continued remaining within indonesia 112 east timor later became an independent country in 2002 113 114 reformasi and contemporary indonesia main article reform era in indonesia damage following the earthquake and subsequent tsunami in banda aceh january 2005 the period after suharto known as reformasi in indonesia brought constitutional amendments competitive elections and decentralisation 115 116 the military lost its reserved parliamentary seats and the police became a separate service but military influence did not disappear 117 democratic institutions were established but patronage and influence of oligarchy persisted 118 former general susilo bambang yudhoyono won the first direct presidential election in 2004 119 his administration reached a peace agreement with aceh separatists in 2005 after the previous year s indian ocean tsunami brought more international attention to the province 120 sporadic bombings occurred throughout the 2000s but had declined by the early 2010s 121 joko widodo elected president in 2014 122 made infrastructure economic development and welfare central to his presidency 123 124 electoral competition continued but the lack of parliamentary opposition 125 and changes to the anti corruption commission restrictions on dissent and interference in the 2024 election reduced the quality of democracy 126 widodo backed prabowo subianto and his son gibran rakabuming raka whose ticket won the 2024 election 125 under prabowo the government pursued a fiscally expansive programme 127 while new laws permitted a larger cabinet 125 and a 2025 revision of the military law allowed more active officers to serve in civilian posts 128 geography main articles geography of indonesia and list of islands of indonesia lake toba in north sumatra the world s largest known cenozoic caldera 129 indonesia lies within one of the most tectonically active regions on earth 130 indonesia is an equatorial archipelago of coastal plains mountains and volcanic islands it lies between latitudes 11 s and 6 n and longitudes 95 e and 141 e 131 and is the world s largest archipelagic state extending 5 120 kilometres 3 181 mi from east to west and 1 760 kilometres 1 094 mi from north to south 132 several straits including malacca sunda and lombok carry international traffic between the indian and pacific oceans including ships transporting energy supplies and commercial cargo 133 134 the number of indonesian islands varies by counting method with published figures ranging from 13 466 named islands to more than 17 500 135 about 922 of them are permanently inhabited 136 its five main islands are sumatra java sulawesi borneo and new guinea indonesia occupies most of borneo where it is known as kalimantan and the western part of new guinea commonly called papua the remainder of those islands is shared with brunei and malaysia and with papua new guinea respectively 137 java accounts for less than 7 of indonesia s land area but is its most populous island with intensive farming and extensive urban growth 138 forest cover also differs widely with larger forested areas in papua and maluku than in java and bali 139 indonesia s terrain includes high peaks volcanic lakes major rivers and coastal plains at 4 884 metres 16 024 ft puncak jaya on new guinea is indonesia s highest peak 140 while lake toba on sumatra is its largest lake 141 in kalimantan major waterways like the kapuas barito and mahakam rivers have historically served as corridors for movement and trade between communities in the island s interior and those near the coast 142 indonesia occupies a complex plate boundary zone where the eurasian india australia and pacific philippine sea tectonic plates interact with subduction zones along these boundaries producing frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity 143 144 the resulting volcanic belt contains roughly 400 volcanoes around 130 of which are considered active 145 this tectonic setting also exposes the archipelago to major earthquake and tsunami hazards the sumatra earthquake in 2004 generated a tsunami that caused widespread destruction in aceh 146 the archipelago has also experienced eruptions of exceptional magnitude no larger explosive event is known from the past 2 5 million years than the toba super eruption about 74 000 years ago 147 and the eruption of tambora in 1815 was followed by global cooling and the year without a summer in 1816 148 climate main articles climate of indonesia and climate change in indonesia köppen geiger climate classification map of indonesia 149 indonesia s equatorial position and monsoon winds give it a tropical climate most lowland areas are warm and humid throughout the year while higher terrain is cooler and seasonal temperature differences are small 150 seasonal changes in the monsoon generally bring wetter conditions from november to april and drier conditions from may to october but their timing and intensity vary by region 150 151 much of the country has a tropical rainforest climate with tropical monsoon and savanna climates across parts of the islands 152 seasonal rainfall helps set rice planting calendars and influences droughts floods and fires 153 154 155 rainfall varies across the archipelago western sumatra western java and portions of kalimantan and papua receive the highest annual rainfall whereas regions in closer proximity to australia such as nusa tenggara experience a significantly drier climate 156 the surrounding oceans island geography monsoon winds and topography all affect where and when rain falls 157 in drought prone regions of the country el niño can suppress rainfall and prolong dry periods causing water shortages and crop losses 158 159 indonesia already faces climate related hazards climate projections indicate further warming and sea level rise changes in rainfall patterns and greater risks from extreme heat and flooding 160 161 these changes affect agriculture water resources public health coastal settlements and wildfire management 162 163 sea level rise is especially relevant to coastal areas where much of indonesia s population and infrastructure is located 164 165 evidence from pekalongan in central java suggests that households with fewer economic resources and communities with weaker infrastructure may have less capacity to adapt 166 biodiversity and conservation main articles fauna of indonesia flora of indonesia environment of indonesia and conservation in indonesia see also protected areas of indonesia list of national parks of indonesia and list of biosphere reserves of indonesia the komodo dragon varanus komodoensis is one of indonesia s officially designated national animals under a presidential decree in 1993 167 indonesia is among the 17 countries identified as megadiverse by conservation international its many islands and geological past have helped produce a highly diverse flora and fauna 168 169 within the archipelago wallacea is a transition zone between asian and australian fauna and one of the world s largest centres of endemism 170 in 2015 an estimated 83 of southeast asia s old growth forest was in indonesia 171 mangrove forests coral reefs and seagrass beds are among indonesia s coastal ecosystems 172 large oil palm and timber plantations were estimated to account for ...
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