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low someone well trained in the system to write as quickly as people speak abbreviation methods are alphabet based and use different abbreviating approaches many journalists use shorthand writing for quickly taking notes shorthand is also commonly used in stenographic training programmes and skill based transcription examinations that require candidates to record dictated speech accurately within a limited time in computerized settings several autocomplete programs standalone or integrated in text editors based on word lists also include a shorthand function for frequently used phrases in educational contexts structured dictation practice is often used to improve shorthand writing speed and listening accuracy shorthand was used more widely in the past before the invention of recording and dictation machines shorthand was considered an essential part of secretarial training and police work and was useful for journalists 2 although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation and other types of verbal communication some systems are used for compact expression for example healthcare professionals might use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence shorthand notes were typically temporary intended either for immediate use or for later typing data entry or mainly historically transcription to longhand longer term uses do exist such as encipherment diaries like that of samuel pepys are a common example 3 history edit classical antiquity edit the earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the parthenon in ancient greece where a mid 4th century bc inscribed marble slab was found this shows a writing system primarily based on vowels using certain modifications to indicate consonants 4 hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century bc onwards though there are indications that it might be older the oldest datable reference is a contract from middle egypt stating that oxyrhynchos allows the semeiographer apollonios two years to be taught shorthand writing 5 hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs over time many syllabic signs were developed in ancient rome marcus tullius tiro 103 4 bc a slave and later a freedman of cicero developed the tironian notes so that he could write down cicero s speeches plutarch c 46 c 120 ad in his life of cato the younger 95 46 bc records that cicero during a trial of some insurrectionists in the senate employed several expert rapid writers whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes to preserve cato s speech on this occasion the tironian notes consisted of latin word stem abbreviations notae and of word ending abbreviations titulae the original tironian notes consisted of about 4 000 signs but new signs were introduced so that their number increased to as many as 13 000 in order to have a less complex writing system a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used after the decline of the roman empire the tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches though they were still known and taught particularly during the carolingian renaissance after the 11th century however they were mostly forgotten when many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of the 16th century protestant reformation long forgotten manuscripts of tironian notes were rediscovered citation needed imperial china edit see also cursive script east asia sun guoting s treatise on calligraphy an example of cursive writing of chinese characters in imperial china clerks used an abbreviated highly cursive form of chinese characters to record court proceedings and criminal confessions these records were used to create more formal transcripts one cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by the accused s signature personal seal or thumbprint requiring fast writing citation needed versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day and influenced by western shorthand methods some new methods were invented 6 7 8 9 europe and north america edit a reporter taking notes at the white house in shorthand march 2009 an interest in shorthand or short writing developed towards the end of the 16th century in england in 1588 timothy bright published his characterie an arte of shorte swifte and secrete writing by character which introduced a system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word bright s book was followed by a number of others including peter bales the writing schoolemaster in 1590 john willis s art of stenography in 1602 edmond willis s an abbreviation of writing by character in 1618 and thomas shelton s short writing in 1626 later re issued as tachygraphy shelton s system became very popular and is well known because it was used by samuel pepys for his diary and for many of his official papers such as his letter copy books it was also used by isaac newton in some of his notebooks 10 shelton borrowed heavily from his predecessors especially edmond willis each consonant was represented by an arbitrary but simple symbol while the five vowels were represented by the relative positions of the surrounding consonants thus the symbol for b with symbol for t drawn directly above it represented bat while b with t below it meant but top right represented e middle right i and lower right o a vowel at the end of a word was represented by a dot in the appropriate position while there were additional symbols for initial vowels this basic system was supplemented by further symbols representing common prefixes and suffixes one drawback of shelton s system was that there was no way to distinguish long and short vowels or diphthongs so the b a t sequence could mean bat or bait or bate while b o t might mean boot or bought or boat the reader needed to use the context to work out which alternative was meant the main advantage of the system was that it was easy to learn and to use it was popular and under the two titles of short writing and tachygraphy shelton s book ran to more than 20 editions between 1626 and 1710 shelton s chief rivals were theophilus metcalfe s stenography or short writing 1633 which was in its 55th edition by 1721 and jeremiah rich s system of 1654 which was published under various titles including the penns dexterity compleated 1669 rich s system was used by george treby chairman of the house of commons committee of secrecy investigating the popish plot 11 another english shorthand system creator of the 17th century was william mason fl 1672 1709 who published arts advancement in 1682 tombstone of heinrich roller inventor of a german shorthand system with a sample of his shorthand modern looking geometric shorthand was introduced with john byrom s new universal shorthand of 1720 samuel taylor published a similar system in 1786 these shorthand systems later became widely used in administrative offices parliamentary reporting and stenographic training institutions in several english speaking countries thomas gurney published brachygraphy in the mid 18th century in 1834 in germany franz xaver gabelsberger published his gabelsberger shorthand gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in german cursive handwriting rather than on the geometrical shapes that were common in the english stenographic tradition yiddish shorthand hebrew shorthand taylor s system was superseded by pitman shorthand introduced in 1837 by english teacher isaac pitman and improved many times since pitman s system uses a phonemic orthography for this reason it is sometimes known as phonography meaning sound writing in greek one of the reasons this system allows fast transcription is that vowel sounds are optional when only consonants are needed to determine a word the availability of a full range of vowel symbols however makes complete accuracy possible isaac s brother benn pitman who lived in cincinnati ohio introduced the method to america the record for fast writing with pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two minute test by nathan behrin in 1922 12 in the united states and some other parts of the world pitman was largely superseded by gregg shorthand which was first published in 1888 by john robert gregg this system was influenced by the handwriting shapes of gabelsberger gregg s shorthand like pitman s is phonetic but has the simplicity of being light line pitman s system uses thick and thin strokes to distinguish related sounds while gregg s uses only thin strokes and makes some of the same distinctions by the length of the stroke in fact gregg claimed joint authorship in another shorthand system published in pamphlet form by one thomas stratford malone malone however claimed sole authorship and a legal battle ensued 13 the two systems use very similar if not identical symbols however these symbols represent different sounds for instance on page 10 of the manual is the word d i m dim however in the gregg system the spelling would actually mean n u k or nook 14 andrew j graham was a phonotypist during the period between the emergence of pitman s and gregg s systems in 1854 he published a short lived only 9 issues phonotypy journal called the cosmotype subtitled devoted to that which will entertain usefully instruct and improve humanity 15 16 and several other monographs about phonography 17 in 1857 he published his own pitman like graham s brief longhand that saw wide adoption in the united states in the late 19th century 17 he published a translation of the new testament his method landed him in a 1864 copyright infringement lawsuit by benn pitman in ohio 17 graham died in 1895 and was buried in montclair s rosedale cemetery as late as 1918 his company andrew j graham co continued to market his method 18 in his youth woodrow wilson mastered the graham system and even corresponded with graham in graham throughout his life wilson continued to develop and employ his own graham system writing to the point that by the 1950s when the graham method had all but disappeared wilson scholars had trouble interpreting his shorthand in 1960 an 84 year old anachronistic shorthand expert clifford gehman managed to crack wilson s shorthand demonstrating on a translation of wilson s acceptance speech for the 1912 presidential nomination 19 20 japan edit our japanese pen shorthand began in 1882 transplanted from the american pitman graham system geometric theory has great influence in japan but japanese motions of writing gave some influence to our shorthand we are proud to have reached the highest speed in capturing spoken words with a pen major pen shorthand systems are shuugiin sangiin nakane and waseda a repeated vowel shown here means a vowel spoken in double length in japanese sometimes shown instead as a bar over the vowel including a machine shorthand system sokutaipu we have 5 major shorthand systems now the japan shorthand association now has 1 000 members tsuguo kaneko 21 there are several other pen shorthands in use ishimura iwamura kumassaki kotani and nissokuken leading to a total of nine pen shorthands in use in addition there is the yamane pen shorthand of unknown importance and three machine shorthands systems speed waapuro caver and hayatokun or sokutaipu the machine shorthands have gained some ascendancy over the pen shorthands 22 japanese shorthand systems sokki shorthand or sokkidou stenography commonly use a syllabic approach much like the common writing system for japanese which has actually two syllabaries in everyday use there are several semi cursive systems 23 most follow a left to right top to bottom writing direction 24 several systems incorporate a loop into many of the strokes giving the appearance of gregg graham or cross s eclectic shorthand without actually functioning like them 25 the kotani aka same vowel same direction or svsd or v type 26 system s strokes frequently cross over each other and in so doing form loops 27 japanese also has its own variously cursive form of writing kanji characters the most extremely simplified of which is known as sōsho the two japanese syllabaries are themselves adapted from the chinese characters both of the syllabaries katakana and hiragana are in everyday use alongside the chinese characters known as kanji the kanji being developed in parallel to the chinese characters have their own idiosyncrasies but chinese and japanese ideograms are largely comprehensible even if their use in the languages are not the same prior to the meiji era japanese did not have its own shorthand the kanji did have their own abbreviated forms borrowed alongside them from china takusari kooki was the first to give classes in a new western style non ideographic shorthand of his own design emphasis being on the non ideographic and new this was the first shorthand system adapted to writing phonetic japanese all other systems prior being based on the idea of whole or partial semantic ideographic writing like that used in the chinese characters and the phonetic approach being mostly peripheral to writing in general even today japanese writing uses the syllabaries to pronounce or spell out words or to indicate grammatical words furigana are written alongside kanji or chinese characters to indicate their pronunciation especially in juvenile publications furigana are usually written using the hiragana syllabary foreign words may not have a kanji form and are spelled out using katakana 28 the new sokki were used to transliterate popular vernacular story telling theater yose of the day this led to a thriving industry of sokkibon shorthand books the ready availability of the stories in book form and higher rates of literacy which the very industry of sokkibon may have helped create due to these being oral classics that were already known to most people may also have helped kill the yose theater as people no longer needed to see the stories performed in person to enjoy them sokkibon also allowed a whole host of what had previously been mostly oral rhetorical and narrative techniques into writing such as imitation of dialect in conversations which can be found back in older gensaku literature but gensaku literature used conventional written language in between conversations however 29 korea edit shorthand for the native korean alphabet hangul saw limited use before the 1945 liberation of korea it only began to see practical use after that various systems were developed in the 1940s and 1950s after the 1948 establishment of south korea the national assembly had its stenographers adopt a variety of styles in 1969 the parliamentary style hangul shorthand 의회식 議會式 uihoesik was developed and became the widespread standard although other standards continued to be used the need for hangul shorthand faded with the rise of computerized stenography in the 1990s 30 oceania edit in new zealand cleric herbert w williams produced a book for writing māori shorthand in 1896 31 classification edit geometric and script like system...
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