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mazulu 76 the 1810s saw the fourth and fifth xhosa wars as british colonisation expanded 77 the ndwandwe paramountcy splintered amid costly raids and shaka s zulu kingdom rose to fill the power vacuum 76 the gaza empire concurrently formed and while the zulu managed to totally defeat the ndwandwe they were repelled by gaza 78 79 1876 map of south africa during the early 19th century many dutch settlers departed from the cape colony where they had been subjected to british control in a series of migrant groups who came to be known as voortrekkers lit pathfinders or pioneers they migrated to the future natal free state and transvaal regions and following their victory over the zulu kingdom at the battle of blood river on 16 december 1838 founded the boer republics the natalia republic the south african republic and the orange free state 80 in the interior the cape colony expanded at the expense of the batswana and griqua and boer expansion destabilised the middle orange river region 81 the matabele kingdom came to dominate the eastern interior and raided the venda kingdom 82 the discovery of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1884 in the interior initiated the mineral revolution which increased economic growth and immigration and intensified british subjugation of the indigenous peoples the struggle to control these important economic resources shaped relations between europeans and the indigenous population as well as between the boers and the british 83 on 16 may 1876 president thomas françois burgers of the south african republic declared war against the pedi people king sekhukhune defeated the army on 1 august 1876 with another attack by the lydenburg volunteer corps being similarly repulsed on 16 february 1877 the two parties signed a peace treaty at botshabelo 84 the boers inability to subdue the pedi led to the departure of burgers in favour of paul kruger and the british annexation of the south african republic in 1878 and 1879 three british attacks were successfully repelled until garnet wolseley defeated sekhukhune in november 1879 with an army of 2 000 british soldiers boers and 10 000 swazis the anglo zulu war was fought in 1879 between the british and the zulu kingdom following lord carnarvon s successful introduction of federation in canada it was thought that similar political effort coupled with military campaigns might succeed with the african kingdoms tribal areas and boer republics in south africa in 1874 henry bartle frere was sent to south africa as the british high commissioner to bring such plans into being among the obstacles were the presence of the independent states of the boers and the zulu army the zulu nation defeated the british at the battle of isandlwana but ultimately lost the war resulting in the termination of its independence 85 boer wars and independence main articles boer wars and union of south africa the battle of majuba hill was the last decisive battle during the first boer war the boer republics successfully resisted british encroachments during the first boer war 1880 1881 using guerrilla warfare tactics which were well suited to local conditions the british returned with greater numbers more experience and new strategy in the second boer war 1899 1902 and although suffering heavy casualties due to boer attrition warfare were ultimately successful due in part to scorched earth tactics and concentration camps in which 27 000 boer civilians died due to a combination of disease and neglect 86 south africa s urban population grew rapidly from the end of the 19th century onward after the devastation of the wars boer farmers fled into transvaal and orange free state cities many of whom would come to constitute an urban class of poor whites 87 anti british policies among white south africans focused on independence during the dutch and british colonial years racial segregation was mostly informal though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of indigenous people including the native location act of 1879 and the system of pass laws 88 89 90 91 92 eight years after the end of the second boer war and after four years of negotiation the south africa act 1909 created the union of south africa on 31 may 1910 granting the country nominal independence the union was a dominion that included the former territories of the cape transvaal and natal colonies as well as the orange free state republic 93 the natives land act of 1913 which was passed by the british ruling the parliament of the newly formed union of south africa severely restricted the ownership of land by black south africans who at that stage controlled only 7 of the country the amount of land reserved for indigenous peoples was later marginally increased 94 in 1931 the union became fully sovereign from the united kingdom with the passage of the statute of westminster which abolished the last powers of the parliament of the united kingdom to legislate in the country in 1934 the south african party and national party merged to form the united party seeking reconciliation between afrikaners and english speaking whites in 1939 the party split over the entry of the union into world war ii as an ally of the united kingdom a move which national party followers opposed 95 apartheid era main articles apartheid history of south africa 1948 1994 and republic of south africa 1961 1984 d f malan the first apartheid era prime minister 1948 1954 in 1948 the national party was elected to power it strengthened the racial segregation begun under dutch and british colonial rule taking canada s indian act as a framework 96 the nationalist government classified all peoples into three races being whites blacks and indians and coloured people and developed rights and limitations for each the white led minoritarian government 97 instituted a policy of legally institutionalised segregation which came to be known as apartheid while whites enjoyed a higher standard of living comparable to first world western nations the black majority remained disadvantaged by almost every standard including income education housing and life expectancy 98 the freedom charter adopted in 1955 by the congress alliance which was multi racial in makeup demanded a non racial society and an end to discrimination on 31 may 1961 the country became a republic following a referendum only open to white voters which narrowly passed 99 the british dominated natal province largely voted against the proposal elizabeth ii lost the title queen of south africa and the last governor general charles robberts swart became state president as a concession to the westminster system the appointment of the president remained by parliament and the position was virtually powerless until p w botha s constitution act of 1983 which eliminated the office of prime minister and instated a unique strong presidency responsible to parliament pressured by other commonwealth of nations countries south africa withdrew from the organisation in 1961 despite opposition to apartheid both within and outside the country from all racial backgrounds the government legislated for a continuation of apartheid the security forces cracked down on internal dissent and violence became widespread with anti apartheid organisations such as the african national congress anc the azanian people s organisation and the pan africanist congress carrying out guerrilla warfare urban sabotage and according to oxford academic acts of terrorism 100 101 102 the three rival resistance movements also engaged in occasional inter factional clashes as they jockeyed for domestic influence 103 apartheid became increasingly controversial and several countries began to boycott business with the south african government because of its racial policies the boycotts and restrictions were later extended to international sanctions and the divestment of holdings by foreign investors 104 105 post apartheid further information history of south africa 1994 present f w de klerk and nelson mandela shake hands in january 1992 the mahlabatini declaration of faith signed by mangosuthu buthelezi and harry schwarz in 1974 enshrined the principles of peaceful transition of power and equality for all the first of such agreements by black and white political leaders in south africa 106 ultimately f w de klerk opened bilateral discussions with nelson mandela in 1993 for a transition of policies and government in 1990 the national party government took the first step towards dismantling apartheid when it lifted the ban on the anc and other political organisations it released nelson mandela from prison after 27 years of serving a sentence for sabotage and treason a negotiation process followed with approval from the white electorate in a 1992 referendum the government continued negotiations to end apartheid south africa held its first universal elections in 1994 which the anc won by an overwhelming majority the country rejoined the commonwealth of nations and became a member of the southern african development community 107 supporters watching the 2010 fifa world cup with vuvuzelas in the township of soweto a suburb of johannesburg the post apartheid period whilst plagued by high unemployment and increasing income inequality 108 109 110 has been characterised by relative political stability the country has however seen periodic outbreaks of violence most notably the 2008 xenophobic riots during which over 60 people were killed 111 and an estimated 100 000 people were driven from their homes 112 and the marikana massacre which constituted the most lethal use of force by south african security forces against civilians since the soweto uprising 113 widespread political corruption and state capture took place under the presidency of jacob zuma 114 115 116 117 118 whose brief imprisonment for contempt of court during the course of his trial for corruption in 2021 led to widespread unrest which left 354 people dead 119 the electoral dominance of the anc has gradually declined since the early 2000s with the party failing to secure a parliamentary majority for the first time in the 2024 general election 120 president cyril ramaphosa subsequently formed the government of national unity with amongst others the democratic alliance 121 geography main article geography of south africa satellite image of south africa south africa is in southern africa with a coastline that stretches more than 2 500 km 1 553 mi and along two oceans the south atlantic and the indian ocean at 1 219 912 km 2 471 011 sq mi in area 122 south africa is the 24th largest country in the world 123 excluding the prince edward islands the country lies between latitudes 22 and 35 s and longitudes 16 and 33 e the interior of south africa consists of a large and in most places almost flat plateau with an altitude of between 1 000 m 3 300 ft and 2 100 m 6 900 ft it is highest in the east and slopes gently downwards towards the west and north and slightly to the south and south west 124 this plateau is surrounded by the great escarpment 125 whose eastern and highest stretch is known as the drakensberg 126 mafadi in the drakensberg is the highest peak in the country at 3 450 m 11 320 ft above sea level the kwazulu natal lesotho international border is formed by the highest portion of the great escarpment which reaches an altitude of over 3 000 m 9 800 ft 127 the south and south western parts of the plateau at approximately 1 100 1 800 m above sea level and the adjoining plain below at approximately 700 800 m above sea level see map on the right are together known as the great karoo which consists of sparsely populated shrubland to the north the great karoo fades into the more arid bushmanland which eventually becomes the kalahari desert in the north west of the country the mid eastern and highest part of the plateau is known as the highveld this relatively well watered area is home to a great proportion of the country s commercial farmlands and contains its largest conurbation gauteng to the north of the highveld from about the 25 30 s line of latitude the plateau slopes downwards into the bushveld which ultimately gives way to the limpopo river lowlands the lowveld 125 the coastal belt below the great escarpment moving clockwise from the northeast consists of the limpopo lowveld which merges into the mpumalanga lowveld below the mpumalanga drakensberg the eastern portion of the great escarpment 128 this is hotter drier and less intensely cultivated than the highveld above the escarpment 125 the kruger national park located in the provinces of limpopo and mpumalanga in north eastern south africa occupies a large portion of the lowveld covering 19 633 square kilometres 7 580 sq mi 129 drakensberg the eastern and highest portion of the great escarpment which surrounds the east south and western borders of the central plateau the coastal belt below the south and south western stretches of the great escarpment contains several ranges of cape fold mountains which run parallel to the coast separating the great escarpment from the ocean 130 131 the land between the outeniqua and langeberg ranges to the south and the swartberg range to the north is known as the little karoo 125 which consists of semi desert shrubland similar to that of the great karoo except that its northern strip along the foothills of the swartberg mountains has a somewhat higher rainfall and is therefore more cultivated than the great karoo the little karoo is famous for its ostrich farming around oudtshoorn the lowland area to the north of the swartberg range up to the great escarpment is the lowland part of the great karoo which is climatically and botanically almost indistinguishable from the karoo above the great escarpment the narrow coastal strip between the outeniqua and langeberg ranges and the ocean known as the garden route has a moderately high year round rainfall and hosts the most extensive area of forest in the country in the south west corner of the country the cape peninsula forms the southernmost tip of the coastal strip which borders the atlantic ocean and ultimately terminates at the country s border with namibia at the orange river the cape peninsula has a mediterranean climate making it and its immediate surrounds the only portion of sub saharan africa which receives most of its rainfall in winter 132 133 the coastal belt to the north of the cape peninsula is bounded on the west by the atlantic ocean and the first row of north south running cape fold mountains to the east the cape fold mountains peter out at about the 32 s line of latitude 131 after which the great escarpment bounds the coastal plain the most southerly portion of this coastal belt is known as the swartland and malmesbury plain which is an important wheat growing region relying on winter rains the region further north is known as namaqualand 134 which becomes more arid near the orange river the little rain that falls tends to fall in winter 133 w...
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