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allophony the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis the total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 9 11 in pirahã and 11 in rotokas to as many as 141 in ǃxũ 20 21 22 the number of phonemically distinct vowels can be as low as two as in ubykh and arrernte at the other extreme the bantu language ngwe has 14 vowel qualities 12 of which may occur long or short making 26 oral vowels plus six nasalized vowels long and short making a total of 38 vowels while xóõ achieves 31 pure vowels not counting its additional variation by vowel length by varying the phonation as regards consonant phonemes puinave and the papuan language tauade each have just seven and rotokas has only six xóõ on the other hand has somewhere around 77 and ubykh 81 the english language uses a rather large set of 13 to 21 vowel phonemes including diphthongs although its 22 to 26 consonants are close to average across all languages the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22 while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8 23 some languages such as french have no phonemic tone or stress while cantonese and several of the kam sui languages have six to nine tones depending on how they are counted and the kam sui dong language has nine to 15 tones by the same measure one of the kru languages wobé has been claimed to have 14 24 though this is disputed 25 the most common vowel system consists of the five vowels i e a o u 26 27 28 languages with a five vowel system span across the globe and throughout unrelated language families some of the most notable five vowel languages are spanish 29 serbo croatian 30 hebrew 31 tagalog 32 hawaiian 33 and japanese the most common consonants are p t k m n 34 relatively few languages lack any of these consonants although it does happen for example arabic lacks p standard hawaiian lacks t mohawk and tlingit lack p and m hupa lacks both p and a simple k colloquial samoan lacks t and n while rotokas and quileute lack m and n non uniqueness of phonemic solutions edit during the development of phoneme theory in the mid 20th century phonologists were concerned not only with the procedures and principles involved in producing a phonemic analysis of the sounds of a given language but also with the reality or uniqueness of the phonemic solution these were central concerns of phonology some writers took the position expressed by kenneth pike there is only one accurate phonemic analysis for a given set of data 35 while others believed that different analyses equally valid could be made for the same data yuen ren chao 1934 in his article the non uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems 36 stated that given the sounds of a language there are usually more than one possible way of reducing them to a set of phonemes and these different systems or solutions are not simply correct or incorrect but may be regarded only as being good or bad for various purposes the linguist f w householder referred to this argument within linguistics as god s truth i e the stance that a given language has an intrinsic structure to be discovered vs hocus pocus i e the stance that any proposed coherent structure is as good as any other 37 different analyses of the english vowel system may be used to illustrate this the article english phonology states that english has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes and that there are 20 vowel phonemes in received pronunciation 14 16 in general american and 20 21 in australian english although these figures are often quoted as fact they actually reflect just one of many possible analyses and later in the english phonology article an alternative analysis is suggested in which some diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to either j or w the fullest exposition of this approach is found in trager and smith 1951 where all long vowels and diphthongs complex nuclei are made up of a short vowel combined with either j w or h plus r for rhotic accents each comprising two phonemes 38 the transcription for the vowel normally transcribed aɪ would instead be aj aʊ would be aw and ɑː would be ah or ar in a rhotic accent if there is an r in the spelling it is also possible to treat english long vowels and diphthongs as combinations of two vowel phonemes with long vowels treated as a sequence of two short vowels so that palm would be represented as paam english can thus be said to have around seven vowel phonemes or even six if schwa were treated as an allophone of ʌ or of other short vowels in the same period there was disagreement about the correct basis for a phonemic analysis the structuralist position was that the analysis should be made purely on the basis of the sound elements and their distribution with no reference to extraneous factors such as grammar morphology or the intuitions of the native speaker this position is strongly associated with leonard bloomfield 39 zellig harris claimed that it is possible to discover the phonemes of a language purely by examining the distribution of phonetic segments 40 referring to mentalistic definitions of the phoneme twaddell 1935 stated such a definition is invalid because 1 we have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible mind and 2 we can secure no advantage from such guesses the linguistic processes of the mind as such are quite simply unobservable and introspection about linguistic processes is notoriously a fire in a wooden stove 10 this approach was opposed to that of edward sapir who gave an important role to native speakers intuitions about where a particular sound or group of sounds fitted into a pattern using english ŋ as an example sapir argued that despite the superficial appearance that this sound belongs to a group of three nasal consonant phonemes m n and ŋ native speakers feel that the velar nasal is really the sequence ŋɡ 41 the theory of generative phonology which emerged in the 1960s explicitly rejected the structuralist approach to phonology and favoured the mentalistic or cognitive view of sapir 42 12 these topics are discussed further in english phonology controversial issues correspondence between letters and phonemes edit main article phonemic orthography phonemes are considered to be the basis for alphabetic writing systems in such systems the written symbols graphemes represent in principle the phonemes of the language being written this is most obviously the case when the alphabet was invented with a particular language in mind for example the latin alphabet was devised for classical latin and therefore the latin of that period enjoyed a near one to one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in most cases though the devisers of the alphabet chose not to represent the phonemic effect of vowel length however because changes in the spoken language are often not accompanied by changes in the established orthography as well as other reasons including dialect differences the effects of morphophonology on orthography and the use of foreign spellings for some loanwords the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in a given language may be highly distorted this is the case with english for example the correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a one to one correspondence a phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters digraph trigraph etc like sh in english or sch in german both representing the phoneme ʃ also a single letter may represent two phonemes as in english x representing gz or ks there may also exist spelling pronunciation rules such as those for the pronunciation of c in italian that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa provided the rules are consistent phonemes in sign languages edit sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features stokoe was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of asl he identified the bundles tab elements of location from latin tabula dez the handshape from designator and sig the motion from signation some researchers also discern ori orientation facial expression or mouthing just as with spoken languages when features are combined they create phonemes as in spoken languages sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme for instance the asl signs for father and mother differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical location is thus contrastive stokoe s terminology and notation system are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages william stokoe s research while still considered seminal has been found not to characterize american sign language or other sign languages sufficiently 43 for instance non manual features are not included in stokoe s classification more sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by brentari 44 sandler 45 and van der kooij 46 chereme edit cherology and chereme from ancient greek χείρ hand are synonyms of phonology and phoneme which were previously used in the study of sign languages the terms were coined in 1960 by william stokoe 47 at gallaudet university who sought to describe sign languages and their constituent parts as true and full languages once a controversial idea the position is now universally accepted in linguistics stokoe s terminology however has been largely abandoned 48 cheremes as the basic units of signed communication are functionally and psychologically equivalent to phonemes in oral languages cherology as the study of cheremes in language is thus equivalent to phonology these cher root terms have thus been deprecated or replaced in the academic literature and elsewhere instead the terms phonology and phoneme or distinctive feature are used which in turn tends to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages 49 see also edit alphabetic principle predictable and systematic relationship between letters and spoken sounds alternation linguistics alternate phonetic realization of a morpheme diaphoneme concept in dialectology analyzing phonemes across dialects of a language diphone adjacent pair of phones initial stress derived noun phonological process phonological change phenomenon in phonology sphoṭa how the mind orders linguistic units into coherent discourse and meaning triphone sequence of three consecutive phones viseme any of several speech sounds that look the same for example when lip reading notes edit or more rarely phonematic 2 3 see fausto cercignani some notes on phonemes and allophones in synchronic and diachronic descriptions in linguistik online 129 5 2024 pp 39 51 online there is allophonic variation of this tone it may be realized in different ways depending on context depending on the ability of the typesetter this may be written vertically an o over an a with a horizontal line like a fraction without the braces references edit phoneme merriam webster com dictionary merriam webster oclc 1032680871 buck carl darling january 1945 phonemics versus phonematics classical philology 40 1 university of chicago 47 doi 10 1086 362860 professor whatmough s assault on the terms phonemic and phonemics seemed to me as to others pedantic so it is a pleasure to discover that his antipathy to these now well established terms is not so deep rooted and consistent as one would suppose from his words in cp xxxviii 1943 211 nobody says mathemics instead of mathematics and i for one do not say and never shall phonemics for phonematics or phonemic for phonematic in happening to re read an earlier article of his in the mélanges linguistiques offerts à m holger pedersen 1937 i find him beginning a sentence p 46 ideally the phonemic system of a language phonematic collins handspeak minimal pairs in sign language phonology handspeak com archived from the original on 14 february 2017 retrieved 13 february 2017 wells 1982 p 44 wells 1982 p 48 liddell h g scott r 1940 a greek english lexicon revised and augmented throughout by sir henry stuart jones with the assistance of roderick mckenzie oxford clarendon press jones 1957 jones d 1917 the phonetic structure of the sechuana language transactions of the philological society 1917 20 pp 99 106 1 2 twaddell 1935 harris 1951 1 2 chomsky halle 1968 clark yallop 1995 chpt 11 jakobson halle 1968 jakobson fant halle 1952 ladefoged 2006 pp 268 276 pike 1967 kiparsky p linguistic universals and linguistic change in e bach r t harms eds universals in linguistic theory 1968 new york holt rinehart and winston pp 170 202 dinnsen daniel 1985 a re examination of phonological neutralization journal of linguistics 21 2 265 79 doi 10 1017 s0022226700010276 jstor 4175789 s2cid 145227467 crystal 2010 p 173 everett daniel l 1 july 1986 pirahã handbook of amazonian languages vol 1 berlin germany de gruyter mouton pp 315 317 doi 10 1515 9783110850819 200 isbn 9783110102574 everett daniel l 2008 don t sleep there are snakes pantheon books pp 178 179 isbn 978 0 375 42502 8 upsid nr of segments www phonetik uni frankfurt de retrieved 22 january 2022 bearth thomas link christa 1980 the tone puzzle of wobe studies in african linguistics 11 2 147 207 archived from the original on 24 february 2021 retrieved 5 january 2019 singler john victor 1984 on the underlying representation of contour tones in wobe studies in african linguistics 15 1 59 75 doi 10 32473 sal v15i1 107520 s2cid 170335215 maddieson ian vowel quality inventories world atlas of language structures retrieved 1 july 2026 ucla phonological segment inventory database upsid info universität frankfurt retrieved 1 july 2026 maddieson ian 1984 insights on vowel spacing patterns of sounds cambridge university press pp 136 155 isbn 978 0 521 11326 7 retrieved 1 july 2026 the complete guide to vowel inventories colin gorrie retrieved 1 july 2026 vowels in serbian phonetics and pronunciation serbonika 26 july 2018 retrieved 1 july 2026 hebrew vowels and sheva נקוד ושווא tim mcninch 22 may 2020 retrieved 1 july 2026 via youtube filipino vowels a complete guide to every sound remitly 3 june 2026 retrieved 1 july 2026 hawaiian alphabet ʻokina kahakō and proper usage remitly 2 march 2026 retrieved 1 july 2026 moran steven mccloy daniel wright richard eds 2014 phoible online leipzig max planck institute for evolutionary anthropology retrieved 5 january 2019 pike k l 1947 phonemics university of michigan press p 64 chao yuen ren 1934 the non uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems academia sinica iv 4 363 97 householder f w 1952 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