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stefanidakis, gwyn, 1993
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ound neighborhoods in developed countries 132 btx stands for benzene toluene xylene this is a group of common volatile organic compounds vocs that are found in the oil refinery environment and serve as a paradigm for more in depth discussion of occupational exposure limits chemical exposure and surveillance among refinery workers 133 134 the most important route of exposure for btx chemicals is inhalation due to the low boiling point of these chemicals the majority of the gaseous production of btx occurs during tank cleaning and fuel transfer which causes offgassing of these chemicals into the air 135 exposure can also occur through ingestion via contaminated water but this is unlikely in an occupational setting 136 dermal exposure and absorption is also possible but is again less likely in an occupational setting where appropriate personal protective equipment is in place 136 in the united states the occupational safety and health administration osha national institute for occupational safety and health niosh and american conference of governmental industrial hygienists acgih have all established occupational exposure limits oels for many of the chemicals above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries 137 138 139 occupational exposure limits for btx chemicals osha pel 8 hour twa calosha pel 8 hour twa niosh rel 10 hour twa acgih tlv 8 hour twa benzene 10 ppm 1 ppm 0 1 ppm 0 5 ppm toluene 200 ppm 10 ppm 100 ppm 20 ppm xylene 100 ppmx 100 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm sources 140 141 142 137 143 benzene in particular has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposure benzene itself can be measured in the breath blood and urine and metabolites such as phenol t t muconic acid t t ma and s phenylmercapturic acid s pma can be measured in urine 144 in addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these biomarkers employers are required by osha to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some of the feared hematologic outcomes of which the most widely recognized is leukemia required testing includes complete blood count with cell differentials and peripheral blood smear on a regular basis 145 the utility of these tests is supported by formal scientific studies 146 potential chemical exposure by process edit process potential chemical exposure 147 common health concerns 148 solvent extraction and dewaxing phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation furfural 150 skin irritation glycols central nervous system depression weakness irritation of the eyes skin nose throat methyl ethyl ketone 151 airway irritation cough dyspnea pulmonary edema thermal cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns catalytic cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns mercaptan 155 156 cyanosis and narcosis irritation of the respiratory tract skin and eyes nickel carbonyl 157 headache teratogen weakness chest abdominal pain lung and nasal cancer catalytic reforming hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain benzene 158 leukemia nervous system effects respiratory symptoms isomerization hydrochloric acid skin damage respiratory tract irritation eye burns hydrogen chloride respiratory tract irritation skin irritation eye burns polymerization sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis phosphoric acid skin eye respiratory irritation alkylation sulfuric acid eye and skin burns pulmonary edema hydrofluoric acid bone changes skin burns respiratory tract damage sweetening and treating hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis unsaturated gas recovery monoethanolamine mea drowsiness irritation of the eyes skin and respiratory tract diethanolamine dea corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat amine treatment monoethanolamine mea drowsiness irritation of the eyes skin and respiratory tract diethanolamine dea corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon dioxide headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia saturated gas extraction hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon dioxide 160 headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia diethanolamine corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis hydrogen production carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness carbon dioxide 160 headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia physical hazards edit workers are at risk of physical injuries due to a large number of high powered machines in the relatively close proximity of the oil refinery the high pressure required for many of the chemical reactions also presents the possibility of localized system failures resulting in blunt or penetrating trauma from exploding system components 161 heat is also a hazard the temperature required for the proper progression of certain reactions in the refining process can reach 1 600 f 870 c 123 as with chemicals the operating system is designed to safely contain this hazard without injury to the worker however in system failures this is a potent threat to workers health concerns include both direct injury through a heat illness or injury as well as the potential for devastating burns should the worker come in contact with super heated reagents equipment 123 noise is another hazard refineries can be very loud environments and have previously been shown to be associated with hearing loss among workers 162 the interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 db 163 109 in the united states an average of 90 db is the permissible exposure limit pel for an 8 hour work day 164 noise exposures that average greater than 85 db over an 8 hour require a hearing conservation program to regularly evaluate workers hearing and to promote its protection 165 regular evaluation of workers auditory capacity and faithful use of properly vetted hearing protection are essential parts of such programs 166 while not specific to the industry oil refinery workers may also be at risk for hazards such as vehicle related accidents machinery associated injuries work in a confined space explosions fires ergonomic hazards shift work related sleep disorders and falls 167 hazard controls edit the theory of hierarchy of controls can be applied to petroleum refineries and their efforts to ensure worker safety elimination and substitution are unlikely in petroleum refineries as many of the raw materials waste products and finished products are hazardous in one form or another e g flammable carcinogenic 147 168 examples of engineering controls include a fire detection extinguishing system pressure chemical sensors to detect predict loss of structural integrity 169 and adequate maintenance of piping to prevent hydrocarbon induced corrosion leading to structural failure 130 131 170 171 other examples employed in petroleum refineries include the post construction protection of steel components with vermiculite to improve heat fire resistance 172 compartmentalization can help to prevent a fire or other systems failure from spreading to affect other areas of the structure and may help prevent dangerous reactions by keeping different chemicals separate from one another until they can be safely combined in the proper environment 169 administrative controls include careful planning and oversight of the refinery cleaning maintenance and turnaround processes these occur when many of the engineering controls are shut down or suppressed and may be especially dangerous to workers detailed coordination is necessary to ensure that maintenance of one part of the facility will not cause dangerous exposures to those performing the maintenance or to workers in other areas of the plant due to the highly flammable nature of many of the involved chemicals smoking areas are tightly controlled and carefully placed 128 personal protective equipment ppe may be necessary depending on the specific chemical being processed or produced particular care is needed during sampling of the partially completed product tank cleaning and other high risk tasks as mentioned above such activities may require the use of impervious outerwear acid hood disposable coveralls etc 128 more generally all personnel in operating areas should use appropriate hearing and vision protection avoid clothes made of flammable material nylon dacron acrylic or blends and full length pants and sleeves 128 regulations edit united states edit worker health and safety in oil refineries is closely monitored at a national level by both the occupational safety and health administration osha and national institute for occupational safety and health niosh 173 174 in addition to federal monitoring california s calosha has been particularly active in protecting worker health in the industry and adopted a policy in 2017 that requires petroleum refineries to perform a hierarchy of hazard controls analysis see above hazard controls section for each process safety hazard 175 safety regulations have resulted in a below average injury rate for refining industry workers in a 2018 report by the us bureau of labor statistics they indicate that petroleum refinery workers have a significantly lower rate of occupational injury 0 4 osha recordable cases per 100 full time workers than all industries 3 1 cases oil and gas extraction 0 8 cases and petroleum manufacturing in general 1 3 cases 176 below is a list of the most common regulations referenced in petroleum refinery safety citations issued by osha 177 flammable and combustible liquids 29 cfr 1910 106 the hazard communication hazcom standard 29 cfr 1910 1200 permit required confined spaces 29 cfr 1910 146 hazardous classified locations 29 cfr 1910 307 the personal protective equipment ppe standard 29 cfr 1910 132 the control of hazardous energy lockout tagout standard 29 cfr 1910 147 corrosion edit oil refinery in iran corrosion of metallic components is a major factor of inefficiency in the refining process because it leads to equipment failure it is a primary driver for the refinery maintenance schedule corrosion related direct costs in the u s petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at us 3 7 billion 171 178 corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process such as pitting corrosion from water droplets embrittlement from hydrogen and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack 179 from a materials standpoint carbon steel is used for upwards of 80 percent of refinery components which is beneficial due to its low cost carbon steel is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205 c but other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere common replacement materials are low alloy steels containing chromium and molybdenum with stainless steels containing more chromium dealing with more corrosive environments more expensive materials commonly used are nickel titanium and copper alloys these are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures and or very corrosive chemicals are present 180 corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring preventative repairs and careful use of materials monitoring methods include both offline checks taken during maintenance and online monitoring offline checks measure corrosion after it has occurred telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical information they have collected this is referred to as preventative management online systems are a more modern development and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached there are several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance electrochemical noise and electrical resistance online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past minutes or hours and been limited by process conditions and sources of error but newer technologies can report rates up to twice per minute with much higher accuracy referred to as real time monitoring this allows process engineers to treat corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system immediate responses to process changes allow the control of corrosion mechanisms so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output 170 in an ideal situation having on line corrosion information that is accurate and real time will allow conditions that cause high corrosion rates to be identified and reduced this is known as predictive management materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application in areas of minimal corrosion cheap materials are preferable but when bad corrosion can occur more expensive but longer lasting materials should be used other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the equipment metals these can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard portland cement or other special acid resistant cement that is shot onto the inner surface of the vessel also available are thin overlays of more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring much material 181 see also edit acid gas gas with acidic ph ap 42 compilation of air pollutant emission factors api oil water separator industrial wastewater processing device pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets biorefinery refinery that converts biomass to energy and other beneficial byproducts ethanol fuel type of biofuel butanol fuel fuel for internal combustion engines gas flare safety device for burning off flammable gas h bio diesel refining with vegetable oil industrial wastewater treatment processes for treating wastewater produced as an industrial by product k factor crude oil refining list of oil refineries natural gas processing industrial processes designed to purify raw natural gas nelson complexity index conversion calculation in petroluem refinery sour gas term for gas with significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide atmospheric distillation of crude oil atmospheric pressure oil separation process list of countries by oil production references edit 1 2 3 4 ga...
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