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rrative inquiry phenomenology pragmatism scientific method methods analysis case study content analysis descriptive statistics discourse analysis ethnography autoethnography experiment field experiment social experiment quasi experiment field research historical method inferential statistics interviews mapping cultural mapping phenomenography secondary research bibliometrics literature review meta analysis scoping review systematic review scientific modelling simulation survey tools and software argument technology gis software lis software bibliometrics reference management science software qualitative data analysis simulation statistics philosophy portal v t e hermeneutics ˌ h ɜːr m ə ˈ nj uː t ɪ k s 1 is the study of the methodological principles of interpretation 2 3 4 especially the interpretation of biblical texts wisdom literature and philosophical texts 5 6 as necessary hermeneutics may include the art of understanding and communication 7 modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non verbal communication 8 9 as well as semiotics presuppositions and pre understandings hermeneutics has been broadly applied in the humanities especially in law history and theology hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation or exegesis of scripture and has been later broadened to questions of general interpretation 10 the terms hermeneutics and exegesis are sometimes used interchangeably hermeneutics is a wider discipline which includes written verbal and nonverbal 8 9 communication exegesis focuses primarily upon the word and grammar of texts hermeneutic as a count noun in the singular refers to some particular method of interpretation see in contrast double hermeneutic etymology edit hermeneutics is derived from the greek word ἑρμηνεύω hermēneuō translate interpret 11 from ἑρμηνεύς hermeneus translator interpreter while the etymology is uncertain both r s p beekes 2009 12 and zsolt simon 2019 13 suggest an anatolian carian origin the technical term ἑρμηνεία hermeneia interpretation explanation was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of aristotle s work περὶ ἑρμηνείας peri hermeneias commonly referred to by its latin title de interpretatione and translated in english as on interpretation it is one of the earliest c 360 bce extant philosophical works in the western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive explicit and formal way the early usage of hermeneutics places it within the boundaries of the sacred 14 21 a divine message must be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth this ambiguity is an irrationality it is a sort of madness that is inflicted upon the receiver of the message only one who possesses a rational method of interpretation i e a hermeneutic could determine the truth or falsity of the message 14 21 22 folk etymology edit hermes messenger of the gods folk etymology places its origin with hermes the mythological greek deity who was the messenger of the gods 15 aside from being a mediator among the gods and between the gods and men he led souls to the underworld upon death moreover hermes was considered the inventor of language and speech an interpreter a liar a thief and a trickster 15 these multiple roles made hermes an ideal representative figure for hermeneutics as socrates noted words have the power to reveal or conceal and can deliver messages in an ambiguous way 15 the greek view of language as consisting of signs that could lead to truth or to falsehood was the essence of hermes who was said to relish the uneasiness of those who received the messages he delivered 16 63 in religious traditions edit mesopotamian hermeneutics edit main article exegesis mesopotamian commentaries islamic hermeneutics edit main article quranic hermeneutics talmudic hermeneutics edit main article talmudic hermeneutics see also judaism rabbinic hermeneutics rabbinical eras chazal zugot tannaim amoraim savoraim geonim rishonim acharonim v t e summaries of the principles by which torah can be interpreted date back to at least hillel the elder although the thirteen principles set forth in the baraita of rabbi ishmael are perhaps the best known these principles ranged from standard rules of logic e g a fortiori argument known in hebrew as קל וחומר kal v chomer to more expansive ones such as the rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears gezerah shavah the rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to the various principles 17 traditional jewish hermeneutics differed from the greek method in that the rabbis considered the tanakh the jewish biblical canon to be without error any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of careful examination of a given text within the context of other texts there were different levels of interpretation some were used to arrive at the plain meaning of the text some expounded the law given in the text and others found secret or mystical levels of understanding vedic hermeneutics edit main article mimamsa vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the vedas the earliest holy texts of hinduism the mimamsa was the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose was understanding what dharma righteous living involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the vedas they also derived the rules for the various rituals that had to be performed precisely the foundational text is the mimamsa sutra of jaimini c 3rd to 1st century bce with a major commentary by śabara c the 5th or 6th century ce the mimamsa sutra summed up the basic rules for vedic interpretation buddhist hermeneutics edit main article buddhist hermeneutics buddhist hermeneutics deals with the interpretation of the vast buddhist literature particularly those texts which are said to be spoken by the buddha buddhavacana and other enlightened beings buddhist hermeneutics is deeply tied to buddhist spiritual practice and its ultimate aim is to extract skillful means of reaching spiritual enlightenment or nirvana a central question in buddhist hermeneutics is which buddhist teachings are explicit representing ultimate truth and which teachings are merely conventional or relative biblical hermeneutics edit main article biblical hermeneutics biblical hermeneutics is the study of the principles of interpretation of the bible while jewish and christian biblical hermeneutics have some overlap they have very different interpretive traditions the early patristic traditions of biblical exegesis had few unifying characteristics in the beginning but tended toward unification in later schools of biblical hermeneutics augustine offers hermeneutics and homiletics in his de doctrina christiana he stresses the importance of humility in the study of scripture he also regards the duplex commandment of love in matthew 22 as the heart of christian faith in augustine s hermeneutics signs have an important role god can communicate with the believer through the signs of the scriptures thus humility love and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of the scriptures although augustine endorses some teaching of the platonism of his time he recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the bible similarly in a practical discipline he modifies the classical theory of oratory in a christian way he underscores the meaning of diligent study of the bible and prayer as more than mere human knowledge and oratory skills as a concluding remark augustine encourages the interpreter and preacher of the bible to seek a good manner of life and most of all to love god and neighbor 18 there is traditionally a fourfold sense of biblical hermeneutics literal moral allegorical spiritual and anagogical 19 literal edit see also biblical literalism encyclopædia britannica states that literal analysis means a biblical text is to be deciphered according to the plain meaning expressed by its linguistic construction and historical context the intention of the authors is believed to correspond to the literal meaning literal hermeneutics is often associated with the verbal inspiration of the bible 20 moral edit moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can be understood from writings within the bible allegories are often placed in this category 20 allegorical edit allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives have a second level of reference that is more than the people events and things that are explicitly mentioned one type of allegorical interpretation is known as typological where the key figures events and establishments of the old testament are viewed as types patterns in the new testament this can also include foreshadowing of people objects and events according to this theory readings like noah s ark could be understood by using the ark as a type of the christian church that god designed from the start 20 anagogical edit this type of interpretation is more often known as mystical interpretation it claims to explain the events of the bible and how they relate to or predict what the future holds this is evident in the jewish kabbalah which attempts to reveal the mystical significance of the numerical values of hebrew words and letters in judaism anagogical interpretation is also evident in the medieval zohar in christianity it can be seen in mariology 20 philosophical hermeneutics edit ancient and medieval hermeneutics edit main article history of hermeneutics modern hermeneutics edit the discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new humanist education of the 15th century as a historical and critical methodology for analyzing texts in a triumph of early modern hermeneutics the italian humanist lorenzo valla proved in 1440 that the donation of constantine was a forgery this was done through intrinsic evidence of the text itself thus hermeneutics expanded from its medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the bible however biblical hermeneutics did not die off for example the protestant reformation brought about a renewed interest in the interpretation of the bible which took a step away from the interpretive tradition developed during the middle ages back to the texts themselves martin luther and john calvin emphasized scriptura sui ipsius interpres scripture interprets itself calvin used brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneutics 21 the rationalist enlightenment led hermeneutists especially protestant exegetists to view scriptural texts as secular classical texts they interpreted scripture as responses to historical or social forces so that for example apparent contradictions and difficult passages in the new testament might be clarified by comparing their possible meanings with contemporary christian practices friedrich schleiermacher 1768 1834 explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to the problem of deciphering sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication the interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its content in terms of the overall organization of the work schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation the former studies how a work is composed from general ideas the latter studies the peculiar combinations that characterize the work as a whole he said that every problem of interpretation is a problem of understanding and even defined hermeneutics as the art of avoiding misunderstanding misunderstanding was to be avoided by means of knowledge of grammatical and psychological laws during schleiermacher s time a fundamental shift occurred from understanding not merely the exact words and their objective meaning to an understanding of the writer s distinctive character and point of view 22 nineteenth and twentieth century hermeneutics emerged as a theory of understanding verstehen through the work of friedrich schleiermacher romantic hermeneutics 23 and methodological hermeneutics 24 august böckh methodological hermeneutics 25 wilhelm dilthey epistemological hermeneutics 26 martin heidegger ontological hermeneutics 27 hermeneutic phenomenology 28 29 30 and transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology 31 hans georg gadamer ontological hermeneutics 32 leo strauss straussian hermeneutics 33 paul ricœur hermeneutic phenomenology 34 walter benjamin marxist hermeneutics 35 ernst bloch marxist hermeneutics 36 35 jacques derrida radical hermeneutics namely deconstruction 37 38 richard kearney diacritical hermeneutics fredric jameson marxist hermeneutics 39 and john thompson critical hermeneutics regarding the relation of hermeneutics with problems of analytic philosophy there has been particularly among analytic heideggerians and those working on heidegger s philosophy of science an attempt to try and situate heidegger s hermeneutic project in debates concerning realism and anti realism arguments have been presented both for heidegger s hermeneutic idealism the thesis that meaning determines reference or equivalently that our understanding of the being of entities is what determines entities as entities 40 and for heidegger s hermeneutic realism 41 the thesis that a there is a nature in itself and science can give us an explanation of how that nature works and b that a is compatible with the ontological implications of our everyday practices 42 philosophers that worked to combine analytic philosophy with hermeneutics include georg henrik von wright and peter winch roy j howard termed this approach analytic hermeneutics 43 other contemporary philosophers influenced by the hermeneutic tradition include charles taylor 22 engaged hermeneutics 44 and dagfinn føllesdal 22 dilthey 1833 1911 edit wilhelm dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by relating interpretation to historical objectification understanding moves from the outer manifestations of human action and productivity to the exploration of their inner meaning in his last important essay the understanding of other persons and their manifestations of life 1910 dilthey made clear that this move from outer to inner from expression to what is expressed is not based on empathy understood as a direct identification with the other interpretation on a hermeneutical conception of empathy 45 involves an indirect or mediated understanding that can only be attained by placing human expressions in their historical context thus understanding is not a process of reconstructing the state of mind of the author but one of articulating what is expressed in his work dilthey divided sciences of the mind human sciences into three structural levels experience expression and comprehension experience means to feel a situation or thing personally dilthey suggested that we can always grasp the meaning of unknown thought when we try to experience it his understanding of experience is very similar to that of phenomenologist edmund husserl expression converts experience into meaning because the discourse has a...
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