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Text of the page (random words):
omechanical computers 4 2 digital computation 4 3 electronic data processing 4 4 the electronic programmable computer 5 stored program computer toggle stored program computer subsection 5 1 manchester baby 5 2 manchester mark 1 5 3 edsac 5 4 edvac 5 5 commercial computers 5 6 microprogramming 6 magnetic memory 7 early digital computer characteristics 8 transistor computers toggle transistor computers subsection 8 1 transistor peripherals 8 2 transistor supercomputers 9 integrated circuit computers 10 semiconductor memory 11 microprocessor computers 12 epilogue 13 see also 14 notes 15 references 16 further reading 17 external links toggle the table of contents history of computing hardware 54 languages العربية asturianu azərbaycanca български বাংলা bosanski català čeština deutsch ދިވެހިބަސް ελληνικά español euskara فارسی suomi français gaeilge hausa עברית हिन्दी hrvatski magyar հայերեն bahasa indonesia italiano 日本語 jawa қазақша 한국어 lingua franca nova македонски മലയാളം bahasa melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ nederlands norsk bokmål occitan پښتو português română русский සිංහල slovenčina slovenščina shqip српски srpski svenska kiswahili ไทย türkmençe türkçe українська tiếng việt 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikimedia commons wikibooks wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia history of computing hardware hardware 1960s to present software software software configuration management unix free and open source software computer science artificial intelligence compiler construction early computer science operating systems programming languages prominent pioneers software engineering modern concepts general purpose cpus graphical user interface internet laptops personal computers video games world wide web cloud quantum by country bulgaria eastern bloc poland romania south america soviet union yugoslavia timeline of computing before 1950 1950 1979 1980 1989 1990 1999 2000 2009 2010 2019 2020 present more timelines glossary of computer science category v t e the history of computing hardware spans developments from early devices used for simple calculations to today s complex computers encompassing advances in both analog and digital technology the first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary arithmetic operation then manipulate the device to obtain the result in later stages computing devices began representing numbers in continuous forms such as by distance along a scale rotation of a shaft or a specific voltage level numbers could also be represented in the form of digits automatically manipulated by a mechanism although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms it greatly increased the precision of results the development of transistor technology followed by the invention of integrated circuit chips led to revolutionary breakthroughs transistor based computers and later integrated circuit based computers enabled digital systems to gradually replace analog systems increasing both efficiency and processing power metal oxide semiconductor mos large scale integration lsi then enabled semiconductor memory and the microprocessor leading to another key breakthrough the miniaturized personal computer pc in the 1970s the cost of computers gradually became so low that personal computers by the 1990s and then mobile computers smartphones and tablets in the 2000s became ubiquitous early devices edit see also timeline of computing hardware before 1950 ancient and medieval edit the ishango bone is thought to be a paleolithic tally stick a suanpan the number represented on this abacus is 6 302 715 408 devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years often using one to one correspondence with fingers the earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick the lebombo bone from the mountains between eswatini and south africa may be the oldest known mathematical artifact 2 it dates from 35 000 bce and consists of 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon s fibula 3 4 later record keeping aids throughout the fertile crescent included calculi clay spheres cones etc which represented counts of items probably livestock or grains sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers b 6 c the use of counting rods is one example the abacus was used early for arithmetic tasks what is now called the roman abacus was used in babylonia as early as c 2700 2300 bc since then many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented in a medieval european counting house a checkered cloth would be placed on a table and markers moved around on it according to certain rules as an aid to calculating sums of money several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations these included the astrolabe and antikythera mechanism from the hellenistic world c 150 100 bc 8 a greek bronze combination lock from the augustan or hadrianic period operated on a primitive form of mechanical logic the central bolt was physically blocked from retracting until the notches of two independent rotary dials were correctly aligned 9 in roman egypt hero of alexandria c 10 70 ad made mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart 10 the steam powered automatic flute described by the book of ingenious devices 850 by the persian baghdadi banū mūsā brothers may have been the first programmable device 11 other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the planisphere and other mechanical computing devices invented by al biruni c ad 1000 the equatorium and universal latitude independent astrolabe by al zarqali c ad 1015 the astronomical analog computers of other medieval muslim astronomers and engineers and the astronomical clock tower of su song 1094 during the song dynasty the castle clock a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by ismail al jazari in 1206 was the first programmable analog computer disputed for the cited source doesn t support the claim and the claim is misleading discuss 12 13 14 ramon llull invented the lullian circle a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions in this case to do with christianity via logical combinatorics this idea was taken up by leibniz centuries later and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and information science renaissance calculating tools edit scottish mathematician and physicist john napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction respectively of the logarithms of those numbers while producing the first logarithmic tables napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications it was at this point that he designed his napier s bones an abacus like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division d a modern slide rule since real numbers can be represented as distances or intervals on a line the slide rule was invented in the 1620s shortly after napier s work to allow multiplication and division operations to be carried out significantly faster than was previously possible 15 edmund gunter built a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale at the university of oxford his device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations including multiplication and division william oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule he followed this up with the modern slide rule in 1632 essentially a combination of two gunter rules held together with the hands slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers until the invention of the pocket calculator 16 mechanical calculators edit in 1609 guidobaldo del monte made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree based on a system of four gears the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant 17 thanks to this machine errors in the calculation of first second third and quarter degrees can be avoided guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation wilhelm schickard a german polymath designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of napier s rods with the world s first mechanical adding machine built into the base because it made use of a single tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam 18 a fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed schickard was too disheartened to build another view through the back of pascal s calculator pascal invented his machine in 1642 in 1642 while still a teenager blaise pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes 19 he invented a mechanical calculator 20 21 he built twenty of these machines called pascal s calculator or pascaline in the following ten years 22 nine pascalines have survived most of which are on display in european museums e a continuing debate exists over whether schickard or pascal should be regarded as the inventor of the mechanical calculator and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere 23 a set of john napier s calculating tables from around 1680 gottfried wilhelm von leibniz invented the stepped reckoner and his famous stepped drum mechanism around 1672 he attempted to create a machine that could be used not only for addition and subtraction but would use a moveable carriage to enable multiplication and division leibniz once said it is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used 24 however leibniz did not incorporate a fully successful carry mechanism leibniz also described the binary numeral system 25 a central ingredient of all modern computers however up to the 1940s many subsequent designs including charles babbage s machines of 1822 and even eniac of 1945 were based on the decimal system f detail of an arithmometer built before 1851 the one digit multiplier cursor ivory top is the leftmost cursor around 1820 charles xavier thomas de colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful mass produced mechanical calculator the thomas arithmometer it could be used to add and subtract and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division 26 it utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by leibniz mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s punched card data processing edit in 1804 french weaver joseph marie jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by a paper tape constructed from punched cards the paper tape could be changed without altering the mechanical design of the loom this was a landmark achievement in programmability his machine was an improvement over similar weaving looms punched cards were preceded by punch bands as in the machine proposed by basile bouchon these bands would inspire information recording for automatic pianos and more recently numerical control machine tools ibm punched card accounting machines 1936 in the late 1880s the american herman hollerith invented data storage on punched cards that could then be read by a machine 27 to process these punched cards he invented the tabulator and the keypunch machine his machines used electromechanical relays and counters 28 hollerith s method was used in the 1890 united states census that census was processed two years faster than the prior census had been 29 hollerith s company eventually became the core of ibm by 1920 electromechanical tabulating machines could add subtract and print accumulated totals 30 machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels when the united states instituted social security in 1935 ibm punched card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers 31 punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration leslie comrie s articles on punched card methods 32 and w j eckert s publication of punched card methods in scientific computation in 1940 described punched card techniques sufficiently advanced to solve some differential equations or perform multiplication and division using floating point representations all on punched cards and unit record machines 33 such machines were used during world war ii for cryptographic statistical processing 34 as well as a vast number of administrative uses the astronomical computing bureau of columbia university performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in computing 35 36 calculators edit main article calculator the curta calculator could also do multiplication and division by the 20th century earlier mechanical calculators cash registers accounting machines and so on were redesigned to use electric motors with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable the word computer was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations 37 by the 1920s british scientist lewis fry richardson s interest in weather prediction led him to propose human computers and numerical analysis to model the weather to this day the most powerful computers on earth are needed to adequately model its weather using the navier stokes equations 38 companies like friden marchant calculator and monroe made desktop mechanical calculators from the 1930s that could add subtract multiply and divide 39 in 1948 the curta was introduced by austrian inventor curt herzstark it was a small hand cranked mechanical calculator and as such a descendant of gottfried leibniz s stepped reckoner and thomas arithmometer the world s first all electronic desktop calculator was the british bell punch anita released in 1961 40 41 it used vacuum tubes cold cathode tubes and dekatrons in its circuits with 12 cold cathode nixie tubes for its display the anita sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available and was silent and quick the tube technology was superseded in june 1963 by the u s manufactured friden ec 130 which had an all transistor design a stack of four 13 digit numbers displayed on a 5 inch 13 cm crt and introduced reverse polish notation rpn first proposed general purpose computing device edit main article analytical engine a portion of babbage s difference engine trial model of a part of the analytical engine built by babbage...
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