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appeared during the carolingian renaissance of the 9th century and included the territories which practiced western christianity at the time 34 it has been estimated that carolingian workshops produced over 100 000 manuscripts in the 9th century of which some 6000 to 7000 survive 35 the carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of cicero horace martial statius lucretius terence julius caesar boethius and martianus capella 36 no copies of the texts of these authors were made in the latin west in the 7th and 8th centuries 36 reform of latin pronunciation edit according to roger wright the carolingian renaissance is responsible for the modern day pronunciation of ecclesiastical latin up until that point there had been no conceptual distinction between latin and romance the former was simply regarded as the written form of the latter for instance in early medieval spain the word for century which would have been pronounced sjeglo was properly spelled saeculum as it had been for the better part of a millennium the scribe would not have read aloud saeculum as sɛkulum any more than an english speaker today would pronounce knight as knɪxt rather than naɪt 37 non native speakers of latin however such as clergy of anglo saxon or irish origin appear to have used a rather different pronunciation presumably attempting to sound out each word according to its spelling the carolingian renaissance in france introduced this artificial pronunciation for the first time to native speakers as well no longer would for instance the word viridiarium orchard be read aloud as the equivalent old french word verdʒjǽr it now had to be pronounced precisely as spelled with all six syllables viridiarium 38 such a radical change had the effect of rendering latin sermons completely unintelligible to the general romance speaking public which prompted officials a few years later at the council of tours to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way in rusticam romanam linguam or plain roman ce speech while the liturgy retained the new pronunciation to this day 39 as there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as latin or romance and native germanic speakers such as church singers numerous in the empire might have struggled to read words in latin orthography according to romance orthoepy various attempts were made in france to devise a new orthography for the latter among the earliest examples are parts of the oaths of strasbourg and the sequence of saint eulalia as the carolingian reforms spread the proper latin pronunciation from france to other romance speaking areas local scholars eventually felt the need to create distinct spelling systems for their own vernaculars as well thereby initiating the literary phase of medieval romance 40 writing in romance does not appear to have become widespread until the renaissance of the twelfth century however 41 carolingian art edit main article carolingian art carolingian art spans the roughly hundred year period from about 800 900 although brief it was an influential period northern europe embraced classical mediterranean roman art forms for the first time setting the stage for the rise of romanesque art and eventually gothic art in the west illuminated manuscripts metalwork small scale sculpture mosaics and frescos survive from the period the carolingians engaged with many types of antique art such as palmettes often placing them in areas such as texts decorative borders or reliefs the leiden aratea is a great example of the carolingians preserving a pagan piece of art a ninth century copy of an astronomical treatise the carolingians took great care copying this piece of work and the antique styles which characterize it for example they meticulously illuminated the pages the square shapes of which the carolingians were also careful to maintain medicine edit main article medicine historians debate including the antique knowledge and practice of medicine as part of the carolingian renaissance however there are compelling reasons to incorporate the medical arts in this period namely that the carolingians interactions with them satisfies at least three hallmarks of the carolingian renaissance collecting and copying ancient medical texts and engaging with this information to reframe it into a christian worldview the first two are self explanatory the carolingians in this period went to great lengths to not only collect ancient medical manuscripts but to copy and therefore preserve them and often in their reformed standardized script of caroline minuscule at that regarding their reframing efforts it is important to understand the dilemma carolingians faced when interacting with antique medical knowledge namely this was considered non christian pagan information and activity after all medical practice equated with human agency in and the potential to corrupt god s perfect plan a dangerous consequence after what happened in the garden of eden the body and world at large was ruled over by god and carolingians were anxious over potentially interrupting his divine will by altering the state of the body however there were those in the carolingian renaissance who investigated this medical knowledge and its potential place in the world god created to see if it might indeed be a welcomed inclusion in their christian worldview the chief method they used for this was connecting medical practice with the bible by declaring that god himself was the ultimate physician and recalling doctoring occurring in the bible notably by jesus disciple the doctor luke carolingians declared that not only was medical knowledge and practice acceptable but an endeavor to be praised in these ways they transformed an ancient non christian practice into a christian one 42 carolingian architecture edit main article carolingian architecture instrumental music a musician playing a cithara that is thought to have evolved from the greek lyre from the 9th century charles the bald bible player with cithara that appears lute like from the 9th century utrecht psalter a cithara word used by the early 9th century stuttgart psalter being held as a citole three centuries later documents created during the carolingian renaissance show the growth of instrumental music with new instruments the images may document earlier european cythara lute types or else a revival of the roman kithara 43 carolingian architecture is the style of north european architecture promoted by charlemagne the period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of otto i in 936 and was a conscious attempt to create a roman renaissance emulating roman early christian and byzantine architecture with its own innovation resulting in having a unique character 44 this syncretic architectural style can be exemplified by the first church of st mark s in venice fusing proto romanesque and byzantine influences 45 there was a profusion of new clerical and secular buildings constructed during this period john contreni calculated that the little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals 417 monasteries and 100 royal residences 44 carolingian currency edit see also denier solidus livre and english currency around ad 755 charlemagne s father pepin the short reformed the currency of the frankish kingdom 46 a variety of local systems was standardized minor mints were closed and royal control over the remaining bigger mints strengthened 46 increasing purity 47 in place of the gold roman and byzantine solidus then common he established a system based on a new 940 fine silver penny latin denarius french denier weighing 1 240 of a pound librum libra or lira livre 47 the carolingian pound seems to have been about 489 5 grams 48 49 making each penny about 2 grams as the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies the shilling solidus sol was established at that value making it 1 22 of the silver pound 50 this was later adjusted to 12 and 1 20 respectively during the carolingian period however neither shillings or pounds were minted being instead used as notional units of account 47 for instance a shilling or solidus of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase 51 despite the purity and quality of the new pennies however they were repeatedly rejected by traders throughout the carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere a situation that led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king s currency 50 the carolingian system was imported to england by offa of mercia and other kings where it formed the basis of english currency until the late 20th century 47 gallery edit aachen gospels c 820 an example of carolingian illumination a copy of the plan of saint gall see also edit iconography of charlemagne golden age of medieval bulgarian culture carolingian church romance languages notes edit references edit citations edit 1 2 rietbergen p j a n 2000 a short history of the netherlands from prehistory to the present day 4th ed amersfoort bekking p 29 isbn 90 6109 440 2 oclc 52849131 the oxford dictionary of the christian church oxford university press 2005 pp 290 291 isbn 978 0 19 280290 3 trompf 1973 alcuin allott stephen 1974 alcuin of york c a d 732 to 804 his life and letters william sessions limited p 12 isbn 978 0 900657 21 4 retrieved 2026 05 09 the oxford dictionary of the christian church oxford university press 2005 p 1603 isbn 978 0 19 280290 3 contreni 1984 p 59 nelson 1986 pierre riché les carolingiens une famille qui fit l europe paris hachette coll pluriel 1983 p 354 michel lemoine article arts libéraux in claude gauvard dir dictionnaire du moyen âge paris puf coll quadrige 2002 p 94 sur le sujet voir jacques fontaine isidore de séville et la culture classique dans l espagne wisigothique paris 1959 fernández morera darío 2016 the myth of the andalusian paradise muslims christians and jews under islamic rule in medieval spain isi books p 70 isbn 9781504034692 fear a t 1997 lives of the visigothic fathers liverpool university p xxii xxiii isbn 978 0853235828 kampers gerd 2008 geschichte der westgoten ferdinand schöningh p 322 isbn 9783506765178 jacques fontaine isidore de séville et la culture classique dans l espagne wisigothique paris 1959 pierre riché éducation et culture dans l occident barbare vie viiie siècles paris le seuil coll points histoire 1995 4e éd p 256 257 264 273 274 297 louis halphen les barbares paris 1936 p 236 étienne gilson la philosophie au moyen âge paris 1944 p 181 1 2 3 4 verhulst 2002 p 133 1 2 verhulst 2002 p 113 1 2 verhulst 2002 p 135 1 2 verhulst 2002 p 134 verhulst 2002 p 105 mccormick michael 1 november 2002 new light on the dark ages how the slave trade fuelled the carolingian economy past present 177 17 54 doi 10 1093 past 177 1 17 frost peter september 14 2013 from slavs to slaves evo and proud goody jack 2012 the theft of history cambridge university press pp 87 88 isbn 9781107394704 clark civilization leyser conrad 2009 late antiquity in the medieval west a companion to late antiquity john wiley sons ltd p 31 doi 10 1002 9781444306101 ch3 isbn 978 1 4443 0610 1 retrieved 2025 11 14 1 2 scott 1964 p 30 cantor 1993 p 190 innes matthew 1997 the classical tradition in the carolingian renaissance ninth century encounters with suetonius international journal of the classical tradition 3 3 266 issn 1073 0508 mayr harting henry 2011 12 01 augustine of hippo chelles and the carolingian renaissance cologne cathedral manuscript 63 frühmittelalterliche studien 45 1 71 doi 10 1515 fmst 2011 0105 issn 1613 0812 carolingian schools carolingian schools of thought cantor 1993 p 189 chambers al 1983 pp 204 205 dr sanjay kumar 2021 a handbook of political geography k k publications p 127 buringh 2010 p 237 1 2 buringh 2010 p 139 wright pp 44 50 wright pp 104 7 wright pp 118 20 wright pp 122 32 143 4 wright 2002 p 151 gamble joel l 2020 a defense of the carolingian defense of medicine introduction translation and notes traditio 75 87 125 doi 10 1017 tdo 2020 4 issn 0362 1529 winternitz emanuel july december 1961 the survival of the kithara and the evolution of the cittern a study in morphology journal of the warburg and courtauld institutes 24 3 4 213 doi 10 2307 750796 jstor 750796 s2cid 195057025 retrieved 24 november 2016 1 2 contreni 1984 p 63 brown thomas holmes george 1988 the oxford history of medieval europe great britain oxford university press p 55 1 2 allen 2009 1 2 3 4 chown 1994 p 23 ferguson 1974 pound munro 2012 p 31 1 2 suchodolski 1983 scott 1964 p 40 bibliography edit allen larry 2009 carolingian reform the encyclopedia of money sta barbara abc clio pp 59 60 isbn 978 1 59884 251 7 buringh eltjo 2010 medieval manuscript production in the latin west brill publishers isbn 978 9004175198 cantor norman f 1993 the civilization of the middle ages a completely revised and expanded edition of medieval history the life and death of a civilization harpercollins isbn 978 0 06 017033 2 chambers mortimer et al 1983 the western experience to 1715 3rd ed new york alfred a knopf isbn 978 0 394 33085 3 chown john f 1994 a history of money from ad 800 london routledge isbn 978 0 415 10279 7 contreni john g 1984 the carolingian renaissance renaissances before the renaissance cultural revivals of late antiquity and the middle ages ferguson wallace k 1974 money and coinage of the age of erasmus an historical and analytical glossary with particular reference to france the low countries england the rhineland and italy the correspondence of erasmus letters 1 to 141 1484 to 1500 toronto university of toronto press pp 311 349 isbn 978 0 8020 1981 3 grier james spring 2003 ademar de chabannes carolingian musical practices and nota romana journal of the american musicological society vol 56 university of california press american musicological society pp 43 98 doi 10 1525 jams 2003 56 1 43 jstor 10 1525 jams 2003 56 1 43 innes m 1997 the classical tradition in the carolingian renaissance ninth century encounters with suetonius international journal of the classical tradition munro john h 2012 the technology and economics of coinage debasements in medieval and early modern europe with special reference to the low countries and england money in the pre industrial world bullion debasements and coin substitutes pickering chatto republished 2016 by routledge pp 30 ff isbn 978 1 84893 230 2 nelson janet l 1986 on the limits of the carolingian renaissance politics and ritual in early medieval europe panofsky erwin renaissance and renascences in western art new york evanston harpers torchbooks 1969 scott martin 1964 medieval europe new york dorset press isbn 978 0 88029 115 6 citation isbn date incompatibility help suchodolski stanislaw 1983 on the rejection of good coin in carolingian europe studies in numismatic method presented 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