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toriaceros 86 kenyatherium 87 meninatherium samburuceros ningxiatherium 88 ougandatherium 87 parelasmotherium 89 procoelodonta 90 sinotherium predators poaching and hunting see also rhino poaching in southern africa graph showing the number of rhinos poached annually in africa 2008 2018 91 an ethiopian shield from rhinoceros skin 19th century adult rhinoceroses have no real predators in the wild other than humans young rhinos sometimes fall prey to big cats crocodiles african wild dogs and hyenas although rhinos are large and aggressive and have a reputation for being resilient they are very easily poached they visit water holes daily and can be easily killed while they drink as of december 2009 poaching increased globally while efforts to protect the rhino are considered increasingly ineffective the most serious estimate that only 3 of poachers are successfully countered is reported of zimbabwe while nepal has largely avoided the crisis 92 poachers have become more sophisticated south african officials have called for urgent action against poaching after poachers killed the last female rhino in the krugersdorp game reserve near johannesburg 93 statistics from south african national parks show that 333 rhinoceroses were killed in south africa in 2010 94 increasing to 668 by 2012 95 over 1 004 in 2013 96 97 98 and over 1 338 killed in 2015 99 in some cases rhinos are tranquilized and their horns removed leaving them to bleed to death while in other instances more than the horn is taken 100 the namibian government has supported the practice of rhino trophy hunting as a way to raise money for conservation hunting licenses for five namibian black rhinos are auctioned annually with the money going to the government s game products trust fund some conservationists and members of the public oppose or question this practice 101 horn use weight of seized rhinoceros horns 2018 102 sign in the national museum of scotland notifying visitors that the horn on display is a replica this is because several rhinoceros horns have been stolen from museums 103 rhinoceros horns develop from subcutaneous tissues and are made of keratinous mineralized compartments the horns root in a germinative layer 104 rhinoceros horns are used in traditional medicines in parts of asia and for dagger handles in yemen and oman esmond bradley martin has reported on the trade for dagger handles in yemen 105 which was historically a major source for the demand for rhino horn in the late 20th century 8 in europe it was historically believed that rhino horns could purify water and could detect poisoned liquids and likely believed to be an aphrodisiac and an antidote to poison 106 it is a common misconception that rhinoceros horn in powdered form is used as an aphrodisiac 107 or a cure for cancer in traditional chinese medicine tcm as cornu rhinoceri asiatici 犀角 xījiǎo rhinoceros horn no tcm text in history has ever mentioned such prescriptions 108 109 110 111 in tcm rhino horn is sometimes prescribed for fevers and convulsions 112 a treatment not supported by evidence based medicine this treatment has been compared to consuming fingernail clippings in water 113 in a 2021 survey of chinese users of rhinoceros horn tcm products the vast majority of respondents cited dispelling heat and detoxification as reasons for using rhino horn 114 in 1993 china signed the cites treaty and removed rhinoceros horn from the chinese medicine pharmacopeia administered by the ministry of health in 2011 the register of chinese herbal medicine in the united kingdom issued a formal statement condemning the use of rhinoceros horn 115 a growing number of tcm educators are also speaking out against the practice 116 although some tcm practitioners still believe that it is a life saving medicine citation needed vietnam reportedly has the biggest number of rhino horn consumers with their demand driving most of the poaching which has risen to record levels 117 118 119 the vietnam cites management authority has claimed that hanoi recently experienced a 77 drop in the usage of rhino horn but national geographic has challenged these claims noticing that there was no rise in the numbers of criminals who were apprehended or prosecuted 120 south african rhino poaching s main destination market is vietnam 121 an average sized horn can bring in as much as a quarter of a million dollars in vietnam and many rhino range states have stockpiles of rhino horn 122 123 horn trade international trade in rhinoceros horn has been declared illegal by the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora cites since 1977 124 a proposal by swaziland to lift the international ban was rejected in october 2016 125 domestic sale of rhinoceros horn in south africa home of 80 of the remaining rhino population 126 was banned as of 2009 the ban was overturned in a court case in 2017 and south africa plans to draft regulations for the sale of rhino horn possibly including export for non commercial purposes 127 the south african government has proposed that a legal trade of rhino horn be established arguing that this could reduce poaching and prevent the extinction of this species 128 in march 2013 some researchers suggested that the only way to reduce poaching would be to establish a regulated trade based on humane and renewable harvesting from live rhinos 129 the world wildlife fund opposes legalization of the horn trade as it may increase demand 130 while ifaw released a report by ecolarge suggesting that more thorough knowledge of economic factors is required to justify the pro trade option 131 conservation according to the world wide fund for nature conservation of african rhinoceroses as consumers of large amounts of vegetation is crucial to maintaining the shape of the african landscape and the natural resources of local communities 132 ways to prevent poaching horn removal to prevent poaching in certain areas rhinos have been tranquillized and their horns removed armed park rangers particularly in south africa are also working on the front lines to combat poaching sometimes killing poachers who are caught in the act a 2012 spike in rhino killings increased concerns about the future of the species 133 134 135 136 clarification needed a 2025 science study found that dehorning led to a 78 reduction in poaching 137 138 horn poisoning in 2011 the rhino rescue project began a horn trade control method consisting of infusing the horns of living rhinos with a mixture of a pink dye and an acaricide to kill ticks which is safe for rhinos but toxic to humans 139 140 the procedure also includes inserting three rfid identification chips and taking dna samples 139 because of the fibrous nature of rhino horn the pressurized dye infuses the interior of the horn but does not color the surface or affect rhino behavior depending on the quantity of horn a person consumes experts believe the acaricide would cause nausea stomach ache and diarrhea and possibly convulsions it would not be fatal the primary deterrent is the knowledge that the treatment has been applied communicated by signs posted at the refuges the original idea grew out of research into the horn as a reservoir for one time tick treatments and experts selected an acaricide they think is safe for the rhino oxpeckers vultures and other animals in the preserve s ecosystem 139 proponents claim that the dye cannot be removed from the horns and remains visible on x ray scanners even when the horn is ground to a fine powder 139 141 the uk charity organization save the rhino has criticized horn poisoning on moral and practical grounds the organization questions the assumptions that the infusion technique works as intended and that even if the poison were effective whether middlemen in a lucrative illegal trade would care much about the effect it would have on buyers 142 additionally rhino horn is increasingly purchased for decorative use rather than for use in traditional medicine save the rhino questions the feasibility of applying the technique to all african rhinos since workers would have to reapply the acaricide every four years 142 it was also reported that one out of 150 rhinos treated did not survive the anesthesia 140 artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn another way to undercut the rhinoceros horn market has been suggested by matthew markus of pembient a biotechnology firm he proposes the synthesis of an artificial substitute for rhinoceros horn to enable authorities to distinguish the bioengineered horn from real rhinoceros horn the genetic code of the bioengineered horn could be registered similar to the dna of living rhinoceros in the rhodis rhino dna index system initial responses from many conservationists were negative but a 2016 report from traffic which monitors trade in wildlife and animal parts conceded that it would be rash to rule out the possibility that trade in synthetic rhinoceros horn could play a role in future conservation strategies 143 historical representations upper paleolithic cave paintings of woolly rhinoceros at chauvet cave france replica woolly rhinoceroses are depicted the european paleolithic art such as in cave paintings in chauvet cave in france 144 which date to around 30 40 000 years ago 145 western zhou bronze rhino greek historian and geographer agatharchides 2nd century bc mentions the rhinoceros in his book on the erythraean sea 146 in khmer art the hindu god agni is depicted with a rhinoceros as his vahana 147 148 similarly in medieval era thai literature agni also called phra phloeng is sometimes described as riding a rhinoceros 149 150 albrecht dürer created a famous woodcut of a rhinoceros in 1515 based on a written description and brief sketch by valentim fernandes a german printer resident in lisbon 151 he never saw the animal itself so dürer s rhinoceros is a somewhat inaccurate depiction 152 there are legends about rhinoceroses stamping out fire in burma india and malaysia the mythical rhinoceros has a special name in malay badak api wherein badak means rhinoceros and api means fire the animal would come when a fire was lit in the forest and stamp it out 153 there are no recent confirmations of this phenomenon this legend was depicted in the film the gods must be crazy 1980 which shows an african rhinoceros putting out two campfires 154 in 1974 a lavender rhinoceros symbol began to be used as a symbol of the gay community in boston united states 155 rhinoceroses in art a wine vessel in the form of a bronze rhinoceros with silver inlay from the western han 202 bc 9 ad period of china sporting a saddle on its back dürer s rhinoceros an albrecht dürer woodcut from 1515 a rhinoceros depicted on a roman mosaic in villa romana del casale an archeological site near piazza armerina in sicily italy how the rhinoceros got his skin from rudyard kipling s just so stories from 1902 a lavender rhinoceros a symbol used as a sign of gay visibility see also conservation bardiya national park chitwan national park care for wild rhino sanctuary international rhino foundation kaziranga national park list of odd toed ungulates by population nicolaas jan van strien save the rhino traffic individual rhinoceroses abada clara list of fictional ungulates rhinoceros of versailles literature rhinoceros 1959 play other rhinoceroses in ancient china references glossary american museum of natural history archived from the original on 20 november 2021 osborn henry fairfield 1898 the extinct rhinoceroses memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 3 80 sanisidro oscar cantalapiedra juan l 2022 the rhinocerotidae fossil record in the iberian peninsula historical biology 34 8 1591 1610 doi 10 1080 08912963 2022 2051502 issn 0891 2963 owen smith norman 1984 macdonald d ed the encyclopedia of mammals new york facts on file pp 490 495 isbn 978 0 87196 871 5 vietnam s appetite for rhino horn drives poaching in africa npr retrieved 27 september 2021 what is a rhinoceros horn made of yesmag bc ca 9 october 2003 archived from the original on 28 september 2011 retrieved 23 september 2010 cheung hubert mazerolle lorraine possingham hugh biggs duan 1 february 2021 rhino horn use by consumers of traditional chinese medicine in china conservation science and practice 3 5 e365 bibcode 2021consp 3e 365c doi 10 1111 csp2 365 hdl 11573 1713877 1 2 vigne lucy martin esmond january march 2018 amid conflict yemen s demand for rhino horn daggers continues pdf swara archived pdf from the original on 7 march 2023 via rhino resource center tougard c et al 2001 phylogenetic relationships of the five extant rhinoceros species rhinocerotidae perissodactyla based on mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12s rrna genes definition of rhinoceros merriam webster dictionary 28 august 2023 retrieved 23 september 2023 rhinoceros dictionary cambridge org 26 november 2025 retrieved 1 december 2025 rookmaaker l c april 2005 review of the european perception of the african rhinoceros journal of zoology 265 4 365 376 doi 10 1017 s0952836905006436 issn 0952 8369 rookmaaker kees 2015 rhino systematics in the times of linnaeus cuvier gray and groves in behie alison m oxenham marc f eds taxonomic tapestries the threads of evolutionary behavioural and conservation research anu press pp 299 320 isbn 978 1 925022 36 0 jstor j ctt169wd9c 18 retrieved 1 december 2025 1 2 giaourtsakis ioannis x 2022 the fossil record of rhinocerotids mammalia perissodactyla rhinocerotidae in greece in vlachos evangelos ed fossil vertebrates of greece vol 2 cham springer international publishing pp 409 500 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 68442 6_14 isbn 978 3 030 68441 9 s2cid 239883886 retrieved 20 november 2023 gray je 1821 on the natural arrangement of vertebrose animals london medical repository 15 297 310 rhinocerotidae mammal species of the world 3rd ed retrieved 2 december 2025 owen r 1845 odontography london uk hippolyte bailliere vol 1 p 587 tissier jérémy antoine pierre olivier becker damien july 2020 new material of epiaceratherium and a new species of mesaceratherium clear up the phylogeny of early rhinocerotidae perissodactyla royal society open science 7 7 200633 bibcode 2020rsos 700633t doi 10 1098 rsos 200633 issn 2054 5703 pmc 7428265 pmid 32874655 1 2 3 mallet christophe houssaye alexandra cornette raphaël billet guillaume 2 november 2022 long bone shape variation in the forelimb of rhinocerotoidea relation with size body mass and body proportions zoological journal of the linnean society 196 3 1201 1234 doi 10 1093 zoolinnean zlab095 issn 0024 4082 mihlbachler matthew c 15 november 2007 sexual dimorphism and mortality bias in a small miocene north american rhino menoceras arikarense insights into the coevolution of sexual dimorphism and sociality in rhinos journal of mammalian evolution 14 4 217 238 doi 10 1007 s10914 007 9048 4 issn 1064 7554 1 2 3 4 d r prothero rhinocerotidae c m janis k m scott l jacobs eds evolution of tertiary mammals 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