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s input current distortion remains less than 8 thd even when supplying nonlinear loads with more than 100 current thd drawbacks of cvts are their larger size audible humming sound and the high heat generation caused by saturation some ferroresonant transformer have active control 3 power distribution edit a three phase bank of voltage regulators used to control the voltage on long ac power distribution lines this bank is mounted on a wooden pole structure each regulator weighs about 1200 kg and is rated 576 kva three phase wye voltage regulator voltage regulators or stabilizers are used to compensate for voltage fluctuations in mains power large regulators may be permanently installed on distribution lines small portable regulators may be plugged in between sensitive equipment and a wall outlet automatic voltage regulators on generator sets to maintain a constant voltage for changes in load the voltage regulator compensates for the change in load power distribution voltage regulators normally operate on a range of voltages for example 150 240 v or 90 280 v 4 dc voltage stabilizers edit many simple dc power supplies regulate the voltage using either series or shunt regulators but most apply a voltage reference using a shunt regulator such as a zener diode avalanche breakdown diode or voltage regulator tube each of these devices begins conducting at a specified voltage and will conduct as much current as required to hold its terminal voltage to that specified voltage by diverting excess current from a non ideal power source to ground often through a relatively low value resistor to dissipate the excess energy the power supply is designed to only supply a maximum amount of current that is within the safe operating capability of the shunt regulating device if the stabilizer must provide more power the shunt output is only used to provide the standard voltage reference for the electronic device known as the voltage stabilizer the voltage stabilizer is the electronic device able to deliver much larger currents on demand active regulators edit active regulators employ at least one active amplifying component such as a transistor or operational amplifier shunt regulators are often but not always passive and simple but always inefficient because they essentially dump the excess current which is not available to the load when more power must be supplied more sophisticated circuits are used in general these active regulators can be divided into several classes linear series regulators switching regulators scr regulators linear regulators edit main article linear regulator linear regulators are based on devices that operate in their linear region in contrast a switching regulator is based on a device forced to act as an on off switch linear regulators are also classified in two types series regulators shunt regulators in the past one or more vacuum tubes were commonly used as the variable resistance modern designs like shakti servo use one or more transistors instead perhaps within an integrated circuit linear designs have the advantage of very clean output with little noise introduced into their dc output but are most often much less efficient and unable to step up or invert the input voltage like switched supplies all linear regulators require a higher input than the output if the input voltage approaches the desired output voltage the regulator will drop out the input to output voltage differential at which this occurs is known as the regulator s drop out voltage low dropout regulators ldos allow an input voltage that can be much lower i e they waste less energy than conventional linear regulators entire linear regulators are available as integrated circuits these chips come in either fixed or adjustable voltage types examples of some integrated circuits are the 723 general purpose regulator and 78xx 79xx series switching regulators edit see also switched mode power supply this section may be too technical for most readers to understand please help improve it to make it understandable to non experts without removing the technical details january 2025 learn how and when to remove this message switching regulator integrated circuit lm2676 3 a step down converter switching regulators rapidly switch a series device on and off the duty cycle of the switch determines the average current adjusting duty cycle percentage of time on adjusts average current when load current drops voltage a switching regulator works similar to an appliance charger when battery charge is low a charger is plugged in and energy is transferred to the battery when charge is high the charger disables itself or is unplugged a switching regulator nominally cycles hundreds to tens of thousands times per second automatically the duty cycle is controlled by a similar feedback mechanism as in a linear regulator because the series element is either fully conducting or switched off it dissipates almost no power this is what gives the switching design its efficiency switching regulators are also able to generate output voltages which are higher than the input or of opposite polarity something not possible with a linear design in switched regulators the pass transistor is used as a controlled switch and is operated at either cutoff or saturated state hence the power transmitted across the pass device is in discrete pulses rather than a steady current flow greater efficiency is achieved since the pass device is operated as a low impedance switch when the pass device is at cutoff there is no current and it dissipates no power again when the pass device is in saturation a negligible voltage drop appears across it and thus dissipates only a small amount of average power providing maximum current to the load in either case the power wasted in the pass device is very little and almost all the power is transmitted to the load thus the efficiency of a switched mode power supply is remarkably high in the range of 70 90 switched mode regulators rely on pulse width modulation to control the average value of the output voltage the average value of a repetitive pulse waveform depends on the area under the waveform when the duty cycle is varied the average voltage changes proportionally like linear regulators nearly complete switching regulators are also available as integrated circuits e g lm2676 tea1566 greenchip 555 unlike linear regulators these usually require an inductor for step up or capacitor for step down that acts as the energy storage element 5 6 the ic regulators combine the reference voltage source error op amp and pass transistor with short circuit current limiting and thermal overload protection switching regulators are more prone to input noise output noise and instability than linear regulators however they provide much better power efficiency than linear regulators scr regulators edit regulators powered from ac power circuits can use silicon controlled rectifiers scrs as the series device whenever the output voltage is below the desired value the scr is triggered allowing electricity to flow into the load until the ac mains voltage passes through zero ending the half cycle scr regulators have the advantages of being both very efficient and very simple but because they can not terminate an ongoing half cycle of conduction they are not capable of very accurate voltage regulation in response to rapidly changing loads an alternative is the scr shunt regulator which uses the regulator output as a trigger both series and shunt designs are noisy but powerful as the device has a low on resistance combination or hybrid regulators edit many power supplies use more than one regulating method in series for example the output from a switching regulator can be further regulated by a linear regulator the switching regulator accepts a wide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a somewhat noisy voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output that is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise generated by the switching regulator other designs may use an scr regulator as the pre regulator followed by another type of regulator an efficient way of creating a variable voltage accurate output power supply is to combine a multi tapped transformer with an adjustable linear post regulator example of linear regulators edit transistor regulator edit in the simplest case a common base amplifier is used with the base of the regulating transistor connected directly to the voltage reference a simple transistor regulator will provide a relatively constant output voltage u out for changes in the voltage u in of the power source and for changes in load r l provided that u in exceeds u out by a sufficient margin and that the power handling capacity of the transistor is not exceeded the output voltage of the stabilizer is equal to the zener diode voltage minus the base emitter voltage of the transistor u z u be where u be is usually about 0 7 v for a silicon transistor depending on the load current if the output voltage drops for any external reason such as an increase in the current drawn by the load causing an increase in the collector emitter voltage to observe kvl the transistor s base emitter voltage u be increases turning the transistor on further and delivering more current to increase the load voltage again r v provides a bias current for both the zener diode and the transistor the current in the diode is minimal when the load current is maximal the circuit designer must choose a minimum voltage that can be tolerated across r v bearing in mind that the higher this voltage requirement is the higher the required input voltage u in and hence the lower the efficiency of the regulator on the other hand lower values of r v lead to higher power dissipation in the diode and to inferior regulator characteristics 7 r v is given by r v min v r min i d max i l h fe 1 displaystyle r_ text v frac min v_ r min i_ text d max i_ text l h_ text fe 1 where min v r is the minimum voltage to be maintained across r v min i d is the minimum current to be maintained through the zener diode max i l is the maximum design load current h fe is the forward current gain of the transistor i c i b 7 regulator with a differential amplifier edit the stability of the output voltage can be significantly increased by using a differential amplifier possibly implemented as an operational amplifier in this case the operational amplifier drives the transistor with more current if the voltage at its inverting input drops below the output of the voltage reference at the non inverting input using the voltage divider r1 r2 and r3 allows choice of the arbitrary output voltage between u z and u in regulator specification edit the output voltage can only be held constant within specified limits the regulation is specified by two measurements load regulation is the change in output voltage for a given change in load current for example typically 15 mv maximum 100 mv for load currents between 5 ma and 1 4 a at some specified temperature and input voltage line regulation or input regulation is the degree to which output voltage changes with input supply voltage changes as a ratio of output to input change for example typically 13 mv v or the output voltage change over the entire specified input voltage range for example plus or minus 2 for input voltages between 90 v and 260 v 50 60 hz other important parameters are temperature coefficient of the output voltage is the change with temperature perhaps averaged over a given temperature range initial accuracy of a voltage regulator or simply the voltage accuracy reflects the error in output voltage for a fixed regulator without taking into account temperature or aging effects on output accuracy measures temperature induced drift it quantifies how much the output voltage drifts due to variations in temperature averaged value the tempco is generally an average over the specified operating temperature range not an incremental slope measured at a single point dropout voltage is the minimum difference between input voltage and output voltage for which the regulator can still supply the specified current the input output differential at which the voltage regulator will no longer maintain regulation is the dropout voltage further reduction in input voltage will result in reduced output voltage this value is dependent on load current and junction temperature inrush current or input surge current or switch on surge is the maximum instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on inrush current usually lasts for half a second or a few milliseconds but it is often very high which makes it dangerous because it can degrade and burn components gradually over months or years especially if there is no inrush current protection alternating current transformers or electric motors in automatic voltage regulators may draw and output several times their normal full load current for a few cycles of the input waveform when first energized or switched on power converters also often have inrush currents much higher than their steady state currents due to the charging current of the input capacitance absolute maximum ratings are defined for regulator components specifying the continuous and peak output currents that may be used sometimes internally limited the maximum input voltage maximum power dissipation at a given temperature etc output noise thermal white noise and output dynamic impedance may be specified as graphs versus frequency while output ripple noise mains hum or switch mode hash noise may be given as peak to peak or rms voltages or in terms of their spectra quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the current drawn internally not available to the load normally measured as the input current while no load is connected and hence a source of inefficiency some linear regulators are surprisingly more efficient at very low current loads than switch mode designs because of this transient response is the reaction of a regulator when a sudden change of the load current called the load transient or input voltage called the line transient occurs some regulators will tend to oscillate or have a slow response time which in some cases might lead to undesired results this value is different from the regulation parameters as that is the stable situation definition the transient response shows the behaviour of the regulator on a change this data is usually provided in the technical documentation of a regulator and is also dependent on output capacitance mirror image insertion protection means that a regulator is designed for use when a voltage usually not higher than the maximum input voltage of the regulator is applied to its output pin while its input terminal is at a low voltage volt free or grounded some regulators can continuously withstand this situation others might only manage it for a limited time...
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