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s basic everyday vocabulary finally middle english transformed in part through the great vowel shift into modern english which exists on a dialect continuum with scots it is next most closely related to low saxon and frisian classification english is a member of the indo european language family belonging to the west germanic branch of germanic languages 13 owing to their descent from a shared ancestor proto germanic english and other germanic languages which include dutch german and swedish 14 share characteristic features including a division of verbs into strong and weak classes the use of modal verbs and sound changes affecting proto indo european consonants known as grimm s and verner s laws 15 old english was one of several ingvaeonic languages which emerged from a dialect continuum spoken by west germanic peoples during the 5th century in frisia on the coast of the north sea old english emerged among the ingvaeonic speakers on the british isles following their migration to the region while the other ingvaeonic languages frisian and old low german developed in parallel on the european continent 16 old english evolved into middle english which in turn evolved into modern english 17 particular dialects of old and middle english also developed into other anglic languages including scots 18 and the extinct fingallian and yola dialects of ireland 19 english was isolated from other germanic languages on the continent and diverged considerably in vocabulary syntax and phonology as a result it is not mutually intelligible with any continental germanic language though some such as dutch and frisian share strong affinities with it particularly in its earlier stages 20 page needed english and frisian were traditionally considered more closely related to one another than they were to other west germanic languages but most modern scholarship does not recognise a particular affinity between them 21 though they shared similar sound changes that were found nowhere else around the north sea at that time the specific changes appeared in english and frisian at different times a pattern that is uncharacteristic of languages that share a unique phylogenetic ancestor 22 23 history main article history of english proto germanic to old english manuscript written in uncial script of beowulf an epic poem composed in old english between 975 and 1025 the poem begins hƿæt ƿē gārde na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga þrym ge frunon listen we have heard of the glory in bygone days of the folk kings of the spear danes 24 old english also called anglo saxon was the earliest form of the english language spoken from c 450 to c 1150 old english developed from a set of west germanic dialects sometimes identified as anglo frisian or north sea germanic originally spoken along the coasts of frisia lower saxony and southern jutland by the germanic peoples known from historical records as the angles saxons and jutes 25 from the 5th century the anglo saxons settled britain as the roman economy and administration collapsed by the 7th century old english had become dominant in britain replacing the common brittonic and british latin previously spoken during the roman occupation 26 27 28 which left little influence on english england and english originally ænglaland and ænglisc are both named after the angles 29 old english was divided into two anglian dialects mercian and northumbrian and two saxon dialects kentish and west saxon 30 through the influence of the kingdom of wessex and the educational reforms instated by king alfred during the 9th century the west saxon dialect became the standard written variety 31 the epic poem beowulf is written in west saxon and the earliest english poem cædmon s hymn is written in northumbrian 32 modern english developed mainly from mercian but the scots language developed from northumbrian during the earliest period of old english a few short inscriptions were made using a runic alphabet 33 by the 7th century a latin alphabet had been adopted written with half uncial letterforms it included the runic letters wynn ƿ and thorn þ and the modified latin letters eth ð and ash æ 33 34 old english is markedly different from modern english 21st century english speakers are entirely unable to understand old english without special training its grammar was similar to that of modern german nouns adjectives pronouns and verbs had many more inflectional endings and forms and word order was much freer than in modern english modern english has case forms in pronouns he him his and a few verb inflections speak speaks speaking spoke spoken but old english had case endings in nouns as well and verbs had more person and number endings 35 36 37 influence of old norse between the 8th and 11th centuries the english spoken in some regions underwent significant changes due to contact with old norse a north germanic language several waves of norsemen colonising the northern british isles in the 8th and 9th centuries brought old english speakers into constant contact with old norse norse influence was strongest in the north eastern varieties of old english spoken in the danelaw surrounding york today these features are still particularly evident in scots and northern english the centre of norse influence was lindsey located in the midlands after lindsey was incorporated into the anglo saxon polity in 920 english spread extensively throughout the region one element of norse influence that persists in all english varieties today is the third person pronoun group beginning with th they them their which replaced the anglo saxon pronouns with h hie him hera 38 other norse loanwords include give get sky skirt egg and cake typically displacing a native anglo saxon equivalent old norse in this era remained largely mutually intelligible with some dialects of old english particularly northern ones 39 middle english further information influence of french on english englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre manner speche souþeron northeron and myddel speche in þe myddel of þe lond noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng furst wiþ danes and afterward wiþ normans in menye þe contray longage ys asperyed and som vseþ strange wlaffyng chyteryng harryng and garryng grisbytting although from the beginning englishmen had three manners of speaking southern northern and midlands speech in the middle of the country nevertheless through intermingling and mixing first with danes and then with normans amongst many the country language has arisen and some use strange stammering chattering snarling and grating gnashing john trevisa c 1385 40 the middle english period is often defined as beginning with the norman conquest in 1066 during the centuries that followed english was heavily influenced by the form of old french spoken by the new norman ruling class that had migrated to england known as old norman over the following decades of contact members of the middle and upper classes whether native english or norman became increasingly bilingual by 1150 at the latest bilingual speakers represented a majority of the english aristocracy and monolingual french speakers were nearly non existent 41 the french spoken by the norman elite in england eventually developed into the anglo norman language 42 the transition from old to middle english can also be placed during the composition of the ormulum c late 12th century a work by the augustinian canon orrm which highlights the blending of old english and anglo norman elements in the language for the first time 43 44 as the lower classes who represented the vast majority of the population remained monolingual english speakers the primary influence of norman was as a lexical superstratum introducing a wide range of loanwords related to politics legislation and prestigious social domains 11 for instance the french word trône appears for the first time from which the english word throne is derived 45 middle english also greatly simplified the inflectional system probably in order to reconcile old norse and old english which were inflectionally different but morphologically similar the distinction between nominative and accusative cases was lost except in personal pronouns the instrumental case was dropped and the use of the genitive case was limited to indicating possession the inflectional system regularised many irregular inflectional forms 46 and gradually simplified the system of agreement making word order less flexible 47 middle english literature includes geoffrey chaucer s canterbury tales c 1400 and thomas malory s le morte d arthur 1485 during the middle english period the use of regional dialects in writing proliferated and dialect traits were even used for effect by authors such as chaucer 48 in the first translation of the entire bible into english by john wycliffe 1382 matthew 8 20 reads foxis han dennes and briddis of heuene han nestis 49 here the plural suffix n on the verb have is still retained but none of the case endings on the nouns are present early modern english main article early modern english illustration of the great vowel shift that affected long vowels in early modern english after the highest vowels i u broke into diphthongs ai au each of the lower vowels gradually shifted up one level to compensate the period of early modern english lasting from 1500 to 1700 was characterised by the great vowel shift 1350 1700 inflectional simplification and linguistic standardisation the great vowel shift affected the stressed long vowels of middle english it was a chain shift meaning that each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel system mid and open vowels were raised and close vowels were broken into diphthongs for example the word bite was originally pronounced as the word beet is today and the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as the word boot is today the great vowel shift explains many irregularities in spelling since english retains many spellings from middle english and it also explains why english vowel letters have very different pronunciations from the same letters in other languages 50 51 english began to rise in prestige relative to norman french during the reign of henry v around 1430 the court of chancery in westminster began using english in its official documents and a new standard form of middle english known as chancery standard developed from the dialects of london and the east midlands in 1476 william caxton introduced the printing press to england and began publishing the first printed books in london thereby expanding the influence of this form of english 52 literature in early modern english includes the works of william shakespeare and the 1611 king james version kjv of the bible even after the vowel shift the language still sounded different from modern english for example the consonant clusters kn ɡn sw in knight gnat and sword were still pronounced many of the grammatical features that a modern reader of shakespeare might find quaint or archaic represent the distinct characteristics of early modern english 53 matthew 8 20 in the kjv reads the foxes have holes and the birds of the ayre have nests 54 this exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sentence structure replacement with subject verb object word order and the use of of instead of the non possessive genitive as well as the introduction of loanwords from french ayre and word replacements bird originally meaning nestling which had replaced old english fugol 54 spread of modern english by the late 18th century the british empire had spread english through its colonies and geopolitical dominance commerce science and technology diplomacy art and formal education all contributed to english becoming the first truly global language english also facilitated worldwide international communication 55 4 english was adopted in parts of north america parts of africa oceania and many other regions when they obtained political independence some of the newly independent states that had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using english as the official language in order to avoid the political and other difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others 56 57 58 in the 20th century the growing economic and cultural influence of the united states and its status as a superpower following the second world war along with worldwide broadcasting in english by the bbc 59 and other broadcasters has caused the language to spread across the planet much faster 60 61 in 1951 the international civil aviation organization icao recommended to the international chicago convention that aviation english be universally adopted for international aeronautical radiotelephony communications 62 in 2001 the international maritime organization imo developed a set of key phrases named standard marine communication phrases smcp in english to be the recognised language supported by the international maritime community for use at sea in the 21st century english is more widely spoken and written than any other language in history 63 as modern english developed explicit norms for standard usage were published and spread through official media such as public education and state sponsored publications in 1755 samuel johnson published his dictionary of the english language which introduced standard spellings of words and usage norms in 1828 noah webster published the american dictionary of the english language to establish a norm for speaking and writing american english independent of the british standard within britain non standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly stigmatised leading to the rapid spread of the prestige varieties among the middle classes 64 in modern english the loss of grammatical case is almost complete it is now found only in pronouns such as he and him she and her who and whom and subject verb object word order is largely fixed 64 some changes such as the use of do support have become universalised earlier english did not use the word do as a general auxiliary as modern english does at first it was used only in question constructions and even then it was not obligatory 65 now do support with the verb have is becoming increasingly standardised the use of progressive forms ending in ing appears to be spreading to new constructions and forms such as had been being built are becoming more common regularisation of irregular forms also continues slowly e g dreamed instead of dreamt and analytical alternatives to inflectional forms are becoming more common e g more polite instead of politer british english is also undergoing change under the influence of american english fuelled by the strong presence of american english in the media 66 67 68 geographical distribution see also list of countries and territories where english is an official language list of countries by english speaking population and english speaking world majority native language co official and majority native language off...
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