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this theory were the nyaya vaisheshika school with the ideas of the indian philosopher kanada being the most followed 6 7 buddhist philosophers also developed these ideas in late 1st millennium ce ideas that were similar to the vaisheshika school but ones that did not include any soul or conscience 6 jain philosophers included the soul jiva adding qualities such as taste smell touch and color to each atom 78 they extended the ideas found in early literature of the hindus and buddhists by adding that atoms are either humid or dry and this quality cements matter they also proposed the possibility that atoms combine because of the attraction of opposites and the soul attaches to these atoms transforms with karma residue and transmigrates with each rebirth 6 in ancient greece pre socratic philosophers speculated the underlying nature of the visible world thales c 624 bce c 546 bce regarded water as the fundamental material of the world anaximander c 610 bce c 546 bce posited that the basic material was wholly characterless or limitless the infinite apeiron anaximenes flourished 585 bce d 528 bce posited that the basic stuff was pneuma or air heraclitus c 535 bce c 475 bce seems to say the basic element is fire though perhaps he means that all is change empedocles c 490 430 bce spoke of four elements of which everything was made earth water air and fire 79 meanwhile parmenides argued that change does not exist and democritus argued that everything is composed of minuscule inert bodies of all shapes called atoms a philosophy called atomism all of these notions had deep philosophical problems 80 aristotle 384 bce 322 bce was the first to put the conception on a sound philosophical basis which he did in his natural philosophy especially in physics book i 81 he adopted as reasonable suppositions the four empedoclean elements but added a fifth aether nevertheless these elements are not basic in aristotle s mind rather they like everything else in the visible world are composed of the basic principles matter and form for my definition of matter is just this the primary substratum of each thing from which it comes to be without qualification and which persists in the result aristotle physics i 9 192a32 the word aristotle uses for matter ὕλη hyle or hule can be literally translated as wood or timber that is raw material for building 82 indeed aristotle s conception of matter is intrinsically linked to something being made or composed in other words in contrast to the early modern conception of matter as simply occupying space matter for aristotle is definitionally linked to process or change matter is what underlies a change of substance for example a horse eats grass the horse changes the grass into itself the grass as such does not persist in the horse but some aspect of it its matter does the matter is not specifically described e g as atoms but consists of whatever persists in the change of substance from grass to horse matter in this understanding does not exist independently i e as a substance but exists interdependently i e as a principle with form and only insofar as it underlies change it can be helpful to conceive of the relationship of matter and form as very similar to that between parts and whole for aristotle matter as such can only receive actuality from form it has no activity or actuality in itself similar to the way that parts as such only have their existence in a whole otherwise they would be independent wholes age of enlightenment main article enlightenment philosophy french philosopher rené descartes 1596 1650 originated the modern conception of matter he was primarily a geometer unlike aristotle who deduced the existence of matter from the physical reality of change descartes arbitrarily postulated matter to be an abstract mathematical substance that occupies space so extension in length breadth and depth constitutes the nature of bodily substance and thought constitutes the nature of thinking substance and everything else attributable to body presupposes extension and is only a mode of an extended thing rené descartes principles of philosophy 83 for descartes matter has only the property of extension so its only activity aside from locomotion is to exclude other bodies 84 this is the mechanical philosophy descartes makes an absolute distinction between mind which he defines as unextended thinking substance and matter which he defines as unthinking extended substance 85 they are independent things in contrast aristotle defines matter and the formal forming principle as complementary principles that together compose one independent thing substance in short aristotle defines matter roughly speaking as what things are actually made of with a potential independent existence but descartes elevates matter to an actual independent thing in itself the continuity and difference between descartes s and aristotle s conceptions is noteworthy in both conceptions matter is passive or inert in the respective conceptions matter has different relationships to intelligence for aristotle matter and intelligence form exist together in an interdependent relationship whereas for descartes matter and intelligence mind are definitionally opposed independent substances 86 descartes s justification for restricting the inherent qualities of matter to extension is its permanence but his real criterion is not permanence which equally applied to color and resistance but his desire to use geometry to explain all material properties 87 like descartes hobbes boyle and locke argued that the inherent properties of bodies were limited to extension and that so called secondary qualities like color were only products of human perception 88 english philosopher isaac newton 1643 1727 inherited descartes s mechanical conception of matter in the third of his rules of reasoning in philosophy newton lists the universal qualities of matter as extension hardness impenetrability mobility and inertia 89 similarly in optics he conjectures that god created matter as solid massy hard impenetrable movable particles which were even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces 90 the primary properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description unlike secondary qualities such as color or taste like descartes newton rejected the essential nature of secondary qualities 91 newton developed descartes s notion of matter by restoring to matter intrinsic properties in addition to extension at least on a limited basis such as mass newton s use of gravitational force which worked at a distance effectively repudiated descartes s mechanics in which interactions happened exclusively by contact 92 though newton s gravity would seem to be a power of bodies newton himself did not admit it to be an essential property of matter carrying the logic forward more consistently joseph priestley 1733 1804 argued that corporeal properties transcend contact mechanics chemical properties require the capacity for attraction 92 he argued matter has other inherent powers besides the so called primary qualities of descartes et al 93 19th and 20th centuries since priestley s time there has been a massive expansion in knowledge of the constituents of the material world viz molecules atoms subatomic particles in the 19th century following the development of the periodic table and of atomic theory atoms were seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter atoms formed molecules and compounds 94 the common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass at the turn of the nineteenth century the knowledge of matter began a rapid evolution aspects of the newtonian view still held sway james clerk maxwell discussed matter in his work matter and motion 95 he carefully separates matter from space and time and defines it in terms of the object referred to in newton s first law of motion however the newtonian picture was not the whole story in the 19th century the term matter was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers and a brief outline can be found in levere 96 further explanation needed one textbook discussion from 1870 suggests that matter is what is made up of atoms 97 three divisions of matter are recognized in science masses molecules and atoms a mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses a molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity an atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties in 1909 the famous physicist j j thomson 1856 1940 wrote about the constitution of matter and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge 98 in the late 19th century with the discovery of the electron and in the early 20th century with the geiger marsden experiment discovery of the atomic nucleus and the birth of particle physics matter was seen as made up of electrons protons and neutrons interacting to form atoms there then developed an entire literature concerning the structure of matter ranging from the electrical structure in the early 20th century 99 to the more recent quark structure of matter introduced as early as 1992 by jacob with the remark understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics 100 further explanation needed in this connection physicists speak of matter fields and speak of particles as quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field 9 10 and here is a quote from de sabbata and gasperini with the word matter we denote in this context the sources of the interactions that is spinor fields like quarks and leptons which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter or scalar fields like the higgs particles which are used to introduced mass in a gauge theory and that however could be composed of more fundamental fermion fields 101 further explanation needed protons and neutrons however are not indivisible they can be divided into quarks and electrons are part of a particle family called leptons both quarks and leptons are elementary particles and were in 2004 seen by authors of an undergraduate text as being the fundamental constituents of matter 102 these quarks and leptons interact through four fundamental forces gravity electromagnetism weak interactions and strong interactions the standard model of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics but despite decades of efforts gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level it is only described by classical physics see quantum gravity and graviton 103 to the frustration of theoreticians like stephen hawking interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of force carrying particles such as photons between quarks and leptons 104 the force carrying particles are not themselves building blocks as one consequence mass and energy which to our present knowledge cannot be created or destroyed cannot always be related to matter which can be created out of non matter particles such as photons or even out of pure energy such as kinetic energy citation needed force mediators are usually not considered matter the mediators of the electric force photons possess energy see planck relation and the mediators of the weak force w and z bosons have mass but neither are considered matter either 105 however while these quanta are not considered matter they do contribute to the total mass of atoms subatomic particles and all systems that contain them 106 107 see also antimatter ambiplasma antihydrogen antiparticle particle accelerator cosmology cosmological constant friedmann equations motion physical ontology dark matter axion minimal supersymmetric standard model neutralino nonbaryonic dark matter scalar field dark matter philosophy atomism materialism physicalism substance theory other mass energy equivalence mattergy pattern formation periodic systems of small molecules programmable matter references a b c r penrose 1991 the mass of the classical vacuum in s saunders h r brown eds the philosophy of vacuum oxford university press pp 21 26 isbn 978 0 19 824449 3 matter physics mcgraw hill s access science encyclopedia of science and technology online archived from the original on 17 june 2011 retrieved 24 may 2009 rhic scientists serve up perfect liquid press release brookhaven national laboratory 18 april 2005 retrieved 15 september 2009 p davies 1992 the new physics a synthesis cambridge university press p 1 isbn 978 0 521 43831 5 gerard t hooft 1997 in search of the ultimate building blocks cambridge university press p 6 isbn 978 0 521 57883 7 a b c d e bernard pullman 2001 the 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