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stefanidakis, gwyn, 1993
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amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water oil refineries therefore are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a seashore nearby a port such location also gives access to transportation by river or by sea the advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline a pipeline may not be practical for products with small output and railcars road tankers and barges are used petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing fine fractionating plants need spaces for further processing of a large volume of refinery products or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals safety and environment edit fire extinguishing operations after the texas city refinery explosion the refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere see ap 42 compilation of air pollutant emission factors and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns 105 risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion and noise health effects due to industrial noise 109 many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release and most refineries have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies in the united states there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries and no major refinery has been built in the country since marathon s garyville louisiana facility in 1976 however many existing refineries have been expanded during that time environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent the construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the united states 110 additionally many refineries more than 100 since the 1980s have closed due to obsolescence and or merger activity within the industry itself 111 environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas nevertheless there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks 112 113 in california s contra costa county and solano county a shoreline necklace of refineries built in the early 20th century before this area was populated and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in richmond martinez pacheco concord pittsburg vallejo and benicia with occasional accidental events that require shelter in place orders to the adjacent populations a number of refineries are located in sherwood park alberta directly adjacent to the city of edmonton which has a population of over 1 000 000 residents 114 niosh criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977 115 worker health edit background edit modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide variety of petroleum based products 116 117 many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters 118 the equipment and monitoring required to ensure the proper progression of these processes is complex and has evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of petroleum engineering 119 120 the wide array of high pressure and or high temperature reactions along with the necessary chemical additives or extracted contaminants produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker 121 122 through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering the vast majority of these processes are automated and enclosed thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers 123 however depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he she works significant health hazards remain 124 although occupational injuries in the united states were not routinely tracked and reported at the time reports of the health impacts of working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s for instance an explosion in a chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890 125 since then numerous fires explosions and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public s attention to the health of oil refinery workers 126 such events continue in the 21st century with explosions reported in refineries in wisconsin and germany in 2018 127 however there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers chemical exposures edit given the highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times 123 however certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms and expose workers to a number of chemical see table above or physical described below hazards 128 129 examples of these scenarios include system failures leaks explosions etc 130 131 standard inspection product sampling process turnaround or equipment maintenance cleaning activities 128 129 a 2021 systematic review associated working in the petrochemical industry with increased risk of various cancers such as mesothelioma it also found reduced risks of other cancers such as stomach and rectal the systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry rather were related to lifestyle factors such as smoking evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents was also weak with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in developed countries 132 btx stands for benzene toluene xylene this is a group of common volatile organic compounds vocs that are found in the oil refinery environment and serve as a paradigm for more in depth discussion of occupational exposure limits chemical exposure and surveillance among refinery workers 133 134 the most important route of exposure for btx chemicals is inhalation due to the low boiling point of these chemicals the majority of the gaseous production of btx occurs during tank cleaning and fuel transfer which causes offgassing of these chemicals into the air 135 exposure can also occur through ingestion via contaminated water but this is unlikely in an occupational setting 136 dermal exposure and absorption is also possible but is again less likely in an occupational setting where appropriate personal protective equipment is in place 136 in the united states the occupational safety and health administration osha national institute for occupational safety and health niosh and american conference of governmental industrial hygienists acgih have all established occupational exposure limits oels for many of the chemicals above that workers may be exposed to in petroleum refineries 137 138 139 occupational exposure limits for btx chemicals osha pel 8 hour twa calosha pel 8 hour twa niosh rel 10 hour twa acgih tlv 8 hour twa benzene 10 ppm 1 ppm 0 1 ppm 0 5 ppm toluene 200 ppm 10 ppm 100 ppm 20 ppm xylene 100 ppmx 100 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm sources 140 141 142 137 143 benzene in particular has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposure benzene itself can be measured in the breath blood and urine and metabolites such as phenol t t muconic acid t t ma and s phenylmercapturic acid s pma can be measured in urine 144 in addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these biomarkers employers are required by osha to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some of the feared hematologic outcomes of which the most widely recognized is leukemia required testing includes complete blood count with cell differentials and peripheral blood smear on a regular basis 145 the utility of these tests is supported by formal scientific studies 146 potential chemical exposure by process edit process potential chemical exposure 147 common health concerns 148 solvent extraction and dewaxing phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation furfural 150 skin irritation glycols central nervous system depression weakness irritation of the eyes skin nose throat methyl ethyl ketone 151 airway irritation cough dyspnea pulmonary edema thermal cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns catalytic cracking hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness phenol 149 neurologic symptoms muscle weakness skin irritation ammonia 154 respiratory tract irritation dyspnea pulmonary edema skin burns mercaptan 155 156 cyanosis and narcosis irritation of the respiratory tract skin and eyes nickel carbonyl 157 headache teratogen weakness chest abdominal pain lung and nasal cancer catalytic reforming hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain benzene 158 leukemia nervous system effects respiratory symptoms isomerization hydrochloric acid skin damage respiratory tract irritation eye burns hydrogen chloride respiratory tract irritation skin irritation eye burns polymerization sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis phosphoric acid skin eye respiratory irritation alkylation sulfuric acid eye and skin burns pulmonary edema hydrofluoric acid bone changes skin burns respiratory tract damage sweetening and treating hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis unsaturated gas recovery monoethanolamine mea drowsiness irritation of the eyes skin and respiratory tract diethanolamine dea corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat amine treatment monoethanolamine mea drowsiness irritation of the eyes skin and respiratory tract diethanolamine dea corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon dioxide headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia saturated gas extraction hydrogen sulfide 152 irritation of the respiratory tract headache visual disturbances eye pain carbon dioxide 160 headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia diethanolamine corneal necrosis skin burns irritation of the eyes nose throat sodium hydroxide 159 irritation of the mucous membranes skin pneumonitis hydrogen production carbon monoxide 153 electrocardiogram changes cyanosis headache weakness carbon dioxide 160 headache dizziness paresthesia malaise tachycardia physical hazards edit workers are at risk of physical injuries due to a large number of high powered machines in the relatively close proximity of the oil refinery the high pressure required for many of the chemical reactions also presents the possibility of localized system failures resulting in blunt or penetrating trauma from exploding system components 161 heat is also a hazard the temperature required for the proper progression of certain reactions in the refining process can reach 1 600 f 870 c 123 as with chemicals the operating system is designed to safely contain this hazard without injury to the worker however in system failures this is a potent threat to workers health concerns include both direct injury through a heat illness or injury as well as the potential for devastating burns should the worker come in contact with super heated reagents equipment 123 noise is another hazard refineries can be very loud environments and have previously been shown to be associated with hearing loss among workers 162 the interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 db 163 109 in the united states an average of 90 db is the permissible exposure limit pel for an 8 hour work day 164 noise exposures that average greater than 85 db over an 8 hour require a hearing conservation program to regularly evaluate workers hearing and to promote its protection 165 regular evaluation of workers auditory capacity and faithful use of properly vetted hearing protection are essential parts of such programs 166 while not specific to the industry oil refinery workers may also be at risk for hazards such as vehicle related accidents machinery associated injuries work in a confined space explosions fires ergonomic hazards shift work related sleep disorders and falls 167 hazard controls edit the theory of hierarchy of controls can be applied to petroleum refineries and their efforts to ensure worker safety elimination and substitution are unlikely in petroleum refineries as many of the raw materials waste products and finished products are hazardous in one form or another e g flammable carcinogenic 147 168 examples of engineering controls include a fire detection extinguishing system pressure chemical sensors to detect predict loss of structural integrity 169 and adequate maintenance of piping to prevent hydrocarbon induced corrosion leading to structural failure 130 131 170 171 other examples employed in petroleum refineries include the post construction protection of steel components with vermiculite to improve heat fire resistance 172 compartmentalization can help to prevent a fire or other systems failure from spreading to affect other areas of the structure and may help prevent dangerous reactions by keeping different chemicals separate from one another until they can be safely combined in the proper environment 169 administrative controls include careful planning and oversight of the refinery cleaning maintenance and turnaround processes these occur when many of the engineering controls are shut down or suppressed and may be especially dangerous to workers detailed coordination is necessary to ensure that maintenance of one part of the facility will not cause dangerous exposures to those performing the maintenance or to workers in other areas of the plant due to the highly flammable nature of many of the involved chemicals smoking areas are tightly controlled and carefully placed 128 personal protective equipment ppe may be necessary depending on the specific chemical being processed or produced particular care is needed during sampling of the partially completed product tank cleaning and other high risk tasks as mentioned above such activities may require the use of impervious outerwear acid hood disposable coveralls etc 128 more generally all personnel in operating areas should use appropriate hearing and vision protection avoid clothes made of flammable material nylon dacron acryl...
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