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an five police departments the california highway patrol alameda county deputies and finally the california national guard were ordered onto the berkeley campus by ronald reagan in the effort to quash the strike 10 the excessive use of police force has been cited with promoting the strike by the alienation of non striking students and faculty who protested the continual presence of police on the berkeley campus the faculty union voted to join the strike on march 2 two days later the academic senate called on the administration to grant an interim department of ethnic studies citation needed on march 7 1969 president hitch authorized the establishment of the first ethnic studies department in the country followed by the establishment of the nation s first college of ethnic studies at san francisco state university on march 20 1969 11 in 1994 with taiwanese government s support national dong hwa university established the first ethnic studies institute in taiwan the graduate institute of ethnic relations and cultures which nowadays is one of leading institution of ethnic studies in asia for its austronesian and taiwanese indigenous studies 12 courses in ethnic studies address perceptions that because of the eurocentric bias and racial and ethnic prejudice of those in power american historians have systematically ignored or undervalued the roles of such ethnic minorities as asian americans blacks mexicans latinos and native americans citation needed ethnic studies also often encompasses issues of intersectionality where gender class and sexuality also come into play there are now hundreds of african american asian american mexican american and chicano latino studies departments in the us approximately fifty native american studies departments and a small number of comparative ethnic studies programs college students especially on the east coast continue to advocate for ethnic studies departments the ethnic studies coalition at wellesley college 13 the taskforce for asian and pacific american studies at harvard university and craash at hunter college 14 are among student organizations calling for increased institutional support for ethnic studies ethnic studies as an institutional discipline varies by location for instance whereas the ethnic studies department at uc berkeley comprises separate core group departments the department at uc san diego does not 15 sf students hold signs in solidarity and support of the third world liberation front 2016 the name of the court students on a hunger strike to defend the sf state college of ethnic studies during an emergency press conference in the quad monday may 9 melissa minton 16 in may 2016 another hunger strike took place at san francisco state university it was founded by hassin bell julia retzlaff sachiel rosen and ahkeel mesteger all students at sfsu to both defend and improve the college of ethnic studies they were on strike for 10 days and the strike drew national attention which helped end it with a signed compromise from sfsu president leslie wong the compromise consisted of allocating 250 000 to the ethnic studies department 2 schools of thought edit while early ethnic studies scholarship focused on the repressed histories and identities of various groups in the u s the field of study has expanded to encompass transnationalism comparative race studies and postmodernist poststructuralist critiques while pioneering thinkers relied on frameworks theories and methodologies drawn from allied fields such as sociology history literature and film scholars in the field today employ multidisciplinary and comparative perspectives increasingly within international or transnational contexts central to much ethnic studies scholarship is understanding how race class gender sexuality ability and other categories of difference intersect to shape the lived experiences of people of color what the legal scholar kimberlé crenshaw calls intersectionality 17 branches of ethnic studies include but are not limited to african american studies asian american studies native american indigenous peoples studies and latino a studies 18 a discipline within ethnic studies is african american studies which involves studying people of african descent and their ideologies customs cultures identities and practices drawing on the social sciences and the humanities 19 the changes made to educational and social institutions by the u s civil rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s can be traced as the origin for the development of african american studies as a discipline 19 in general the changes made to the higher education system to incorporate african american studies has been led by student activism 20 when initially created in many cases to end protests the african american studies programs at predominately white universities were underfunded and not highly esteemed 21 since the 1970s african american studies programs in general have become reputable and more concretely established within predominantly white universities 21 historically african american scholars and their works have been used as sources to teach african american studies 22 teaching african american studies has been categorized by two methods afrocentric which relies solely on text by black authors and are led by all black faculties and traditional methods which are more inclusive of non black authors and are more broad in their studies 23 scholars whose work was influential to the development of african american studies and whose work is studied include w e b du bois booker t washington carter g woodson and george washington williams 21 the first historically black college or university to offer a variation of african american studies was howard university located in washington d c 23 native american studies or sometimes named native studies or american indian studies is another branch of ethnic studies that was established as a result of university student protests and community activism 24 the first attempts at establishing some form of native american studies came in 1917 from oklahoma senator robert owen who called for an indian studies program at the university of oklahoma 25 several decades later the red power movement of the 1960s in a time of high minority and suppressed group activism in the us sought to get native american studies into higher education 26 san francisco state university and the university of california at berkeley were the first to adopt these fields into their departments in 1968 26 the tcu tribal colleges and universities movement of the 1960s aimed to expand the teaching of native american studies by establishing tribe run universities to educate the tribe s youth and their communities 27 navajo community college later renamed diné college was the first of these institutions 27 curriculum in native american studies programs teach the historical cultural and traditional aspects of both natives of the land in general as well as that of the american indians specifically 24 figures within native american studies include vine deloria jr an american indian scholar and rights activist 28 paula gunn allen who was a writer and educator of native american studies 29 poet simon j ortiz 30 asian american studies different than asian studies is a subfield within ethnic studies which focuses on the perspectives history culture and traditions of the asian peoples in the united states 31 asian american studies originated in the late 1960s at the san francisco state college now san francisco state university where a student strike led to the development of the program at the school 31 the historical approach to representing asia in the united states prior to the introduction of asian american studies has been orientalism which portrays asia as a polar opposite to anything western or american 32 to counter this historical representation of ideas asian american studies became one of the interdisciplinary fields that emphasized teaching the perspective voice and experience of the minority community 31 in terms of the ethnicities being studied there are distinctions between asian americans chinese japanese filipino americans for example and pacific islanders samoan americans but those groups tend to be grouped as a part of asian american studies 33 prose plays songs poetry haiku and several other forms of writing were popular during the 1970s as methods of asian american expression 34 among the most read authors were frank chin momoko iko lawson fusao inada meena alexander jeffery paul chan and john okada 34 who were considered by asian american scholars to be pioneers of asian american literature 33 most recently whiteness studies have emerged as a popular site of inquiry within what is traditionally an academic field focused on the racial formation of communities of color instead of including whites as another additive component to ethnic studies whiteness studies has instead focused on how the political and juridical category of white has been constructed and protected in relation to racial others and how it continues to shape the relationship between bodies of color and the state as ian haney lopez articulates in white by law the legal construction of race the law has functioned as the vehicle through which certain racialized groups have been included or excluded from the category of whiteness across time and thus marked as inside or outside the national imaginary read as white and the privileges that result from this belonging 35 important to whiteness studies according to scholars such as richard dyer is understanding how white bodies are both invisible and hypervisible and how representations of whiteness in visual culture reflect and in turn shape a persistent commitment to white supremacy in the u s even as some claim the nation is currently a colorblind meritocracy 36 in addition to visual culture space also reproduces and normalizes whiteness the sociologist george lipsitz argues that whiteness is a condition rather than a skin color a structured advantage of accumulated privilege that resurfaces across time and space and obscures the racism that continues to mark certain bodies as out of place and responsible for their own disadvantage 37 such attention to geography is an example of the way ethnic studies scholars have taken up the study of race and ethnicity across almost all disciplines using various methodologies in the humanities and social sciences in general an ethnic studies approach is loosely defined as any approach that emphasizes the cross relational and intersectional study of different groups george lipsitz is important here as well demonstrating how the project of anti black racism defines the relationship between the white spatial imaginary and other communities of color thus the redlining of the 1930s that prevented upwardly mobile african americans from moving into all white neighborhoods also forced latino and asian bodies into certain spaces relationship to other fields edit ethnic studies often face resistance from traditional fields of inquiry which prioritize objective and detached scholarship scholars from such disciplines often consider ethnic studies politicized in contrast ethnic studies have increasingly aligned with other fields that also emphasize power dynamics these include african american and asian american studies citation needed ethnic studies is often organized housed within departments that operate under a variety of names including critical ethnic studies 38 comparative american cultures 39 ethnic studies 40 or american studies and ethnicity 41 a wide variety of curricula are employed in the service of each of these rubrics occasionally the gap between american studies and ethnic studies can be productively bridged especially in departments where the bulk of faculty focus on race and ethnicity difference and power but that bridgework can be troublesome obscuring one foci and sharpening the emphasis on another 42 as a consequence of this great variation though ethnic studies need to be understood within their specific institutional context and despite considerable financial and often political pressure to consolidate or eliminate ethnic studies within american studies or to house native american studies latino studies and asian american studies within either ethnic studies or american studies the relationships between these fields should be considered within each institution s governing eco system 43 professional associations edit association for ethnic studies edit this section may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject potentially preventing it from being verifiable and neutral please help improve this article by replacing such sources with more appropriate citations to reliable independent sources january 2019 learn how and when to remove this message the association for ethnic studies aes was founded in 1972 by several scholars who wanted to study race through an interdisciplinary approach it was previously known as the national association for ethnic studies naes it was initially named the national association of interdisciplinary studies for native american black chicano puerto rican and asian americans the organization was officially renamed as naes in 1985 and then to its current name in 2018 44 it is the oldest ethnic studies association in the united states 45 from its founding the organization has strived to promote scholarship research and curriculum design for its members 44 the organization hosts an annual conference 46 aes also publishes the ethnic studies review a peer reviewed journal for scholarship in ethnic studies published by the university of california press 47 critical ethnic studies association edit the critical ethnic studies association cesa began with its first conference in march 2011 at the university of california riverside critical ethnic studies and the future of genocide settler colonialism heteropatriarchy white supremacy this prompted the people who had organized and participated in the conference to form the association the second conference took place in september 2013 at the university of illinois chicago and was themed decolonizing future intellectual legacies and activist practices the third conference took place from april 30 to may 2015 at york university in toronto and it is titled sovereignties and colonialisms resisting racism extraction and dispossession 48 in some instances ethnic studies has become entangled with and similar to the mandates of liberal multiculturalism which relies on politics beholden to us nation building and capitalist imperatives ethnic studies is in a difficult position because as it becomes more legitimized within the academy it has frequently done so by distancing itself from the very social movements that triggered its creation on the other hand ethnic studies departments have always existed on the margins of the academic industrial complex and became further marginalized thr...
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