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it into a practically useful computer the manchester mark 1 the mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the ferranti mark 1 the world s first commercially available general purpose computer 47 built by ferranti it was delivered to the university of manchester in february 1951 at least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957 one of them to shell labs in amsterdam 48 in october 1947 the directors of british catering company j lyons company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers lyons s leo i computer modelled closely on the cambridge edsac of 1949 became operational in april 1951 49 and ran the world s first routine office computer job grace hopper was the first to develop a compiler for a programming language 2 transistors main articles transistor and history of the transistor further information transistor computer and mosfet bipolar junction transistor bjt the concept of a field effect transistor was proposed by julius edgar lilienfeld in 1925 john bardeen and walter brattain while working under william shockley at bell labs built the first working transistor the point contact transistor in 1947 which was followed by shockley s bipolar junction transistor in 1948 50 51 from 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs giving rise to the second generation of computers compared to vacuum tubes transistors have many advantages they are smaller and require less power than vacuum tubes so give off less heat junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer indefinite service life transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space however early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass production basis which limited them to a number of specialised applications 52 at the university of manchester a team under the leadership of tom kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves 53 their first transistorised computer and the first in the world was operational by 1953 and a second version was completed there in april 1955 however the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 khz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory so it was not the first completely transistorized computer that distinction goes to the harwell cadet of 1955 54 built by the electronics division of the atomic energy research establishment at harwell 54 55 mosfet mos transistor showing gate g body b source s and drain d terminals the gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer pink the metal oxide silicon field effect transistor mosfet also known as the mos transistor was invented by mohamed m atalla and dawon kahng at bell labs in 1959 56 it was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass produced for a wide range of uses 52 with its high scalability 57 and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors 58 the mosfet made it possible to build high density integrated circuits 59 60 in addition to data processing it also enabled the practical use of mos transistors as memory cell storage elements leading to the development of mos semiconductor memory which replaced earlier magnetic core memory in computers the mosfet led to the microcomputer revolution 61 and became the driving force behind the computer revolution 62 63 the mosfet is the most widely used transistor in computers 64 65 and is the fundamental building block of digital electronics 66 integrated circuits main articles integrated circuit and invention of the integrated circuit further information planar process and microprocessor die photograph of a mos 6502 an early 1970s microprocessor integrating 3500 transistors on a single chip integrated circuits are typically packaged in plastic metal or ceramic cases to protect the ic from damage and for ease of assembly the next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit ic the idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the royal radar establishment of the ministry of defence geoffrey w a dummer dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the symposium on progress in quality electronic components in washington d c on 7 may 1952 67 the first working ics were invented by jack kilby at texas instruments and robert noyce at fairchild semiconductor 68 kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in july 1958 successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 september 1958 69 in his patent application of 6 february 1959 kilby described his new device as a body of semiconductor material wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated 70 71 however kilby s invention was a hybrid integrated circuit hybrid ic rather than a monolithic integrated circuit ic chip 72 kilby s ic had external wire connections which made it difficult to mass produce 73 noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than kilby 74 noyce s invention was the first true monolithic ic chip 75 73 his chip solved many practical problems that kilby s had not produced at fairchild semiconductor it was made of silicon whereas kilby s chip was made of germanium noyce s monolithic ic was fabricated using the planar process developed by his colleague jean hoerni in early 1959 in turn the planar process was based on mohamed m atalla s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late 1950s 76 77 78 modern monolithic ics are predominantly mos metal oxide semiconductor integrated circuits built from mosfets mos transistors 79 the earliest experimental mos ic to be fabricated was a 16 transistor chip built by fred heiman and steven hofstein at rca in 1962 80 general microelectronics later introduced the first commercial mos ic in 1964 81 developed by robert norman 80 following the development of the self aligned gate silicon gate mos transistor by robert kerwin donald klein and john sarace at bell labs in 1967 the first silicon gate mos ic with self aligned gates was developed by federico faggin at fairchild semiconductor in 1968 82 the mosfet has since become the most critical device component in modern ics 79 the development of the mos integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor 83 84 and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers while the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term microprocessor it is largely undisputed that the first single chip microprocessor was the intel 4004 85 designed and realized by federico faggin with his silicon gate mos ic technology 83 along with ted hoff masatoshi shima and stanley mazor at intel b 87 in the early 1970s mos ic technology enabled the integration of more than 10 000 transistors on a single chip 60 system on a chip socs are complete computers on a microchip or chip the size of a coin 88 they may or may not have integrated ram and flash memory if not integrated the ram is usually placed directly above known as package on package or below on the opposite side of the circuit board the soc and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the soc this all done to improve data transfer speeds as the data signals don t have to travel long distances since eniac in 1945 computers have advanced enormously with modern socs such as the snapdragon 865 being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than eniac integrating billions of transistors and consuming only a few watts of power mobile computers the first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power the 50 lb 23 kg ibm 5100 was an early example later portables such as the osborne 1 and compaq portable were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in the first laptops such as the grid compass removed this requirement by incorporating batteries and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s 89 the same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s these smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market 90 these are powered by system on a chip socs which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin 88 types see also classes of computers computers can be classified in a number of different ways including by architecture analog computer digital computer hybrid computer harvard architecture von neumann architecture complex instruction set computer reduced instruction set computer by size form factor and purpose supercomputer mainframe computer minicomputer term no longer used server rackmount server blade server tower server personal computer workstation microcomputer term no longer used home computer desktop computer tower desktop slimline desktop multimedia computer non linear editing system computers video editing pcs and the like gaming computer all in one pc nettop small form factor pcs mini pcs home theater pc keyboard computer portable computer thin client internet appliance laptop desktop replacement computer gaming laptop rugged laptop 2 in 1 pc ultrabook chromebook subnotebook netbook mobile computers tablet computer smartphone ultra mobile pc pocket pc palmtop pc handheld pc wearable computer smartwatch smartglasses single board computer plug computer stick pc programmable logic controller computer on module system on module system in a package system on chip also known as an application processor or ap if it lacks circuitry such as radio circuitry microcontroller hardware main articles computer hardware personal computer hardware central processing unit and microprocessor video demonstrating the standard components of a slimline computer the term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects circuits computer chips graphic cards sound cards memory ram motherboard displays power supplies cables keyboards printers and mice input devices are all hardware history of computing hardware main article history of computing hardware first generation mechanical electromechanical calculators pascal s calculator arithmometer difference engine quevedo s analytical machines programmable devices jacquard loom analytical engine ibm ascc harvard mark i harvard mark ii ibm ssec z1 z2 z3 second generation vacuum tubes calculators atanasoff berry computer ibm 604 univac 60 univac 120 programmable devices colossus eniac manchester baby edsac manchester mark 1 ferranti pegasus ferranti mercury csirac edvac univac i ibm 701 ibm 702 ibm 650 z22 third generation discrete transistors and ssi msi lsi integrated circuits mainframes ibm 7090 ibm 7080 ibm system 360 bunch minicomputer hp 2116a ibm system 32 ibm system 36 linc pdp 8 pdp 11 desktop computer hp 9100 fourth generation vlsi integrated circuits minicomputer vax ibm as 400 4 bit microcomputer intel 4004 intel 4040 8 bit microcomputer intel 8008 intel 8080 motorola 6800 motorola 6809 mos technology 6502 zilog z80 16 bit microcomputer intel 8088 zilog z8000 wdc 65816 65802 32 bit microcomputer intel 80386 pentium motorola 68000 arm 64 bit microcomputer c alpha mips pa risc powerpc sparc x86 64 armv8 a embedded computer intel 8048 intel 8051 personal computer desktop computer home computer laptop computer personal digital assistant pda portable computer tablet pc wearable computer theoretical experimental quantum computer ibm q system one chemical computer dna computing optical computer spintronics based computer wetware organic computer other hardware topics peripheral device input output input mouse keyboard joystick image scanner webcam graphics tablet microphone output monitor printer loudspeaker both floppy disk drive hard disk drive optical disc drive teleprinter computer buses short range rs 232 scsi pci usb long range computer networking ethernet atm fddi a general purpose computer has four main components the arithmetic logic unit alu the control unit the memory and the input and output devices collectively termed i o these parts are interconnected by buses often made of groups of wires inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a 1 and when off it represents a 0 in positive logic representation the circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits input devices when unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices the data is processed and sent to output devices the input devices may be hand operated or automated the act of processing is mainly regulated by the cpu some examples of input devices are computer keyboard digital camera digital video graphics tablet image scanner joystick microphone mouse overlay keyboard real time clock trackball touchscreen light pen output devices the means through which computer gives output are known as output devices some examples of output devices are computer monitor printer pc speaker projector sound card video card control unit main articles cpu design and control unit diagram showing how a particular mips architecture instruction would be decoded by the control system the control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer s various components it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer d control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance a key component common to all cpus is the program counter a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from e the control system s function is as follows this is a simplified description and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of cpu read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory or perhaps from an input device the location of this required data is typically st...
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