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urther sign languages just like spoken languages depend on linear sequencing of signs to form sentences the greater use of simultaneity is mostly seen in the morphology internal structure of individual signs non manual elements edit main article nonmanual feature sign languages convey much of their prosody through non manual elements postures or movements of the body head eyebrows eyes cheeks and mouth are used in various combinations to show several categories of information including lexical distinction grammatical structure adjectival or adverbial content and discourse functions at the lexical level signs can be lexically specified for non manual elements in addition to the manual articulation for instance facial expressions may accompany verbs of emotion as in the sign for angry in czech sign language non manual elements may also be lexically contrastive for example in asl american sign language facial components distinguish some signs from other signs an example is the sign translated as not yet which requires that the tongue touch the lower lip and that the head rotate from side to side in addition to the manual part of the sign without these features the sign would be interpreted as late 44 mouthings which are parts of spoken words accompanying lexical signs can also be contrastive as in the manually identical signs for doctor and battery in sign language of the netherlands 45 while the content of a signed sentence is produced manually many grammatical functions are produced non manually i e with the face and the torso 46 such functions include questions negation relative clauses and topicalization 47 asl and bsl use similar non manual marking for yes no questions for example they are shown through raised eyebrows and a forward head tilt 48 49 some adjectival and adverbial information is conveyed through non manual elements but what these elements are varies from language to language for instance in asl a slightly open mouth with the tongue relaxed and visible in the corner of the mouth means carelessly but a similar non manual in bsl means boring or unpleasant 49 discourse functions such as turn taking are largely regulated through head movement and eye gaze since the addressee in a signed conversation must be watching the signer a signer can avoid letting the other person have a turn by not looking at them or can indicate that the other person may have a turn by making eye contact 50 iconicity edit iconicity is similarity or analogy between the form of a sign linguistic or otherwise and its meaning as opposed to arbitrariness 51 the first studies on iconicity in asl were published in the late 1970s and early 1980s many early sign language linguists rejected the notion that iconicity was an important aspect of sign languages considering most perceived iconicity to be extralinguistic 52 29 however mimetic aspects of sign language signs that imitate mimic or represent are found in abundance across a wide variety of sign languages for example when deaf children learning sign language try to express something but do not know the associated sign they will often invent an iconic sign that displays mimetic properties 53 though it never disappears from a particular sign language iconicity is gradually weakened as forms of sign languages become more customary and are subsequently grammaticized as a form becomes more conventional it becomes disseminated in a methodical way phonologically to the rest of the sign language community 54 nancy frishberg concluded that though originally present in many signs iconicity is degraded over time through the application of natural grammatical processes 52 in 1978 psychologist roger brown was one of the first to suggest that the properties of asl give it a clear advantage in terms of learning and memory 55 in his study brown found that when a group of six hearing children were taught signs that had high levels of iconic mapping they were significantly more likely to recall the signs in a later memory task than another group of six children that were taught signs that had little or no iconic properties in contrast to brown linguists elissa newport and richard meier found that iconicity appears to have virtually no impact on the acquisition of american sign language 56 a central task for the pioneers of sign language linguistics was trying to prove that asl was a real language and not merely a collection of gestures or english on the hands citation needed one of the prevailing beliefs at this time was that real languages must consist of an arbitrary relationship between form and meaning 34 thus if asl consisted of signs that had iconic form meaning relationship it could not be considered a real language as a result iconicity as a whole was largely neglected in research of sign languages for a long time however iconicity also plays a role in many spoken languages spoken japanese for example exhibits many words mimicking the sounds of their potential referents see japanese sound symbolism later researchers thus acknowledged that natural languages do not need to consist of an arbitrary relationship between form and meaning 57 the visual nature of sign language simply allows for a greater degree of iconicity compared to spoken languages as most real world objects can be described by a prototypical shape e g a table usually has a flat surface but most real world objects do not make prototypical sounds that can be mimicked by spoken languages e g tables do not make prototypical sounds however sign languages are not fully iconic on the one hand there are also many arbitrary signs in sign languages and on the other hand the grammar of a sign language puts limits to the degree of iconicity all known sign languages for example express lexical concepts via manual signs from a truly iconic language one would expect that a concept like smiling would be expressed by mimicking a smile i e by performing a smiling face all known sign languages however do not express the concept of smiling by a smiling face but by a manual sign 58 the cognitive linguistics perspective rejects a more traditional definition of iconicity as a relationship between linguistic form and a concrete real world referent rather it is a set of selected correspondences between the form and meaning of a sign 35 in this view iconicity is grounded in a language user s mental representation construal in cognitive grammar it is defined as a fully grammatical and central aspect of a sign language rather than a peripheral phenomenon 59 the cognitive linguistics perspective allows for some signs to be fully iconic or partially iconic given the number of correspondences between the possible parameters of form and meaning 60 in this way the israeli sign language isl sign for ask has parts of its form that are iconic movement away from the mouth means something coming from the mouth and parts that are arbitrary the handshape and the orientation 61 many signs have metaphoric mappings as well as iconic or metonymic ones for these signs there are three way correspondences between a form a concrete source and an abstract target meaning the asl sign learn has this three way correspondence the abstract target meaning is learning the concrete source is putting objects into the head from books the form is a grasping hand moving from an open palm to the forehead the iconic correspondence is between form and concrete source the metaphorical correspondence is between concrete source and abstract target meaning because the concrete source is connected to two correspondences linguistics refer to metaphorical signs as double mapped 35 60 61 typology edit see also linguistic typology sign languages vary in word order typology for example austrian sign language japanese sign language and indo pakistani sign language are subject object verb while asl is subject verb object influence from the surrounding spoken languages is plausible sign languages tend to be incorporating classifier languages where a classifier handshape representing the object is incorporated into those transitive verbs which allow such modification for a similar group of intransitive verbs especially motion verbs it is the subject which is incorporated only in a very few sign languages for instance japanese sign language are agents ever incorporated in this way since subjects of intransitives are treated similarly to objects of transitives incorporation in sign languages can be said to follow an ergative pattern brentari 62 63 classifies sign languages as a whole group determined by the medium of communication visual instead of auditory as one group with the features monosyllabic and polymorphemic that means that one syllable i e one word one sign can express several morphemes e g subject and object of a verb determine the direction of the verb s movement inflection another aspect of typology that has been studied in sign languages is their systems for cardinal numbers 64 typologically significant differences have been found between sign languages acquisition edit see also language acquisition and language acquisition by deaf children children who are exposed to a sign language from birth will acquire it just as hearing children acquire their native spoken language 65 researchers at the mcgill university found that american sign language users who acquired the language natively from birth performed better when asked to copy videos of asl sentences than asl users who acquired the language later in life they also found that there are differences in the grammatical morphology of asl sentences between the two groups all suggesting that there is an important critical period in learning signed languages 66 young students learn some words of lao sign language from suliphone a deaf artist this was one of several activities at a school book party sponsored by big brother mouse a literacy project in laos where suliphone works the acquisition of non manual features follows an interesting pattern when a word that always has a particular non manual feature associated with it such as a wh question word is learned the non manual aspects are attached to the word but do not have the flexibility associated with adult use at a certain point the non manual features are dropped and the word is produced with no facial expression after a few months the non manuals reappear this time being used the way adult signers would use them 67 written forms edit sign languages do not have a traditional or formal written form many deaf people do not see a need to write their own language 68 several ways to represent sign languages in written form have been developed stokoe notation devised by dr william stokoe for his 1965 dictionary of american sign language 69 is an abstract phonemic notation system designed specifically for representing the use of the hands it has no way of expressing facial expression or other non manual features of sign languages however it was designed for research particularly in a dictionary not for general use the hamburg notation system hamnosys developed in the early 1990s is a detailed phonetic system not designed for any one sign language and intended as a transcription system for researchers rather than as a practical script david j peterson has attempted to create a phonetic transcription system for signing that is ascii friendly known as the sign language international phonetic alphabet slipa signwriting developed by valerie sutton in 1974 is a system for representing sign languages phonetically including mouthing facial expression and dynamics of movement the script is sometimes used for detailed research language documentation as well as publishing texts and works in sign languages si5s is another orthography which is largely phonemic however a few signs are logographs and or ideographs due to regional variation in sign languages asl phabet is a system designed primarily for education of deaf children by dr sam supalla which uses a minimalist collection of symbols in the order of handshape location movement many signs can be written the same way homograph the alphabetic writing system for sign languages sistema de escritura alfabética sea by its spanish name and acronym developed by linguist ángel herrero blanco and two deaf researchers juan josé alfaro and inmacualada cascales was published as a book in 2003 70 and made accessible in spanish sign language on line 71 this system makes use of the letters of the latin alphabet with a few diacritics to represent sign through the morphemic sequence s l c q d f bimanual sign place contact handshape direction and internal form the resulting words are meant to be read by signing the system is designed to be applicable to any sign language with minimal modification and to be usable through any medium without special equipment or software non manual elements can be encoded to some extent but the authors argue that the system does not need to represent all elements of a sign to be practical the same way written oral language does not the system has seen some updates which are kept publicly on a wiki page 72 the center for linguistic normalization of spanish sign language has made use of sea to transcribe all signs on its dictionary 73 so far there is no consensus regarding the written form of sign language maria galea writes that signwriting is becoming widespread uncontainable and untraceable in the same way that works written in and about a well developed writing system such as the latin script the time has arrived where sw is so widespread that it is impossible in the same way to list all works that have been produced using this writing system and that have been written about this writing system 74 for example in 2015 at the federal university of santa catarina joão paulo ampessan wrote his linguistics master s dissertation in brazilian sign language using sutton signwriting in his dissertation the writing of grammatical non manual expressions in sentences in libras using the signwriting system ampessan states that the data indicate the need for non manual expressions usage in writing sign language 75 except for signwriting none are widely used citation needed sign perception edit for a native signer sign perception influences how the mind makes sense of their visual language experience for example a handshape may vary based on the other signs made before or after it but these variations are arranged in perceptual categories during its development the mind detects handshape contrasts but groups similar handshapes together in one category 76 77 78 different handshapes are stored in other categories the mind ignores some of the similarities between different perceptual categories at the same time preserving the visual information within each perceptual category of handshape variation classification edit see also list of sign languages the classification of sign language families french sign language family american sign language asl cluster ru...
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