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was never paid and would later play a part persuading his maternal first cousin charles ii of spain to leave his empire to philip duke of anjou later philip v of spain the grandson of louis xiv and maria theresa the war of devolution did not focus on the payment of the dowry rather the lack of payment was what louis xiv used as a pretext for nullifying maria theresa s renunciation of her claims allowing the land to devolve to him in brabant the location of the land in dispute children of first marriages traditionally were not disadvantaged by their parents remarriages and still inherited property louis s wife was philip iv s daughter by his first marriage while the new king of spain charles ii was his son by a subsequent marriage thus brabant allegedly devolved to maria theresa justifying france to attack the spanish netherlands relations with the dutch the battle of tolhuis louis xiv crosses the lower rhine at lobith on 12 june 1672 rijksmuseum amsterdam during the eighty years war 1568 1648 with spain france supported the dutch republic as part of a general policy of opposing habsburg power johan de witt dutch grand pensionary from 1653 to 1672 viewed this as crucial for dutch security and a counterweight against his domestic orangist opponents louis provided support in the 1665 1667 second anglo dutch war but used the opportunity to launch the war of devolution in 1667 this captured franche comté and much of the spanish netherlands french expansion in this area was a direct threat to dutch economic interests 39 the dutch opened talks with charles ii of england on a common diplomatic front against france leading to the triple alliance between england the dutch and sweden the threat of an escalation and a secret treaty to divide spanish possessions with emperor leopold the other major claimant to the throne of spain led louis to relinquish many of his gains in the 1668 treaty of aix la chapelle 40 louis placed little reliance on his agreement with leopold and as it was now clear french and dutch aims were in direct conflict he decided to first defeat the republic then seize the spanish netherlands this required breaking up the triple alliance he paid sweden to remain neutral and signed the 1670 secret treaty of dover with charles an anglo french alliance against the dutch republic in may 1672 france invaded the republic supported by münster and the electorate of cologne 41 louis xiv 1670 by claude lefèbvre rapid french advance led to a coup that toppled de witt and brought william iii to power leopold viewed french expansion into the rhineland as an increasing threat especially after they seized the strategic duchy of lorraine in 1670 the prospect of dutch defeat led leopold to an alliance with brandenburg prussia on 23 june followed by another with the republic on 25th 42 although brandenburg was forced out of the war by the june 1673 treaty of vossem in august an anti french alliance was formed by the dutch spain emperor leopold and the duke of lorraine 43 the french alliance was deeply unpopular in england and only more so after the disappointing battles against michiel de ruyter s fleet charles ii of england made peace with the dutch in the february 1674 treaty of westminster however french armies held significant advantages over their opponents an undivided command talented generals like turenne condé and luxembourg and vastly superior logistics reforms introduced by louvois the secretary of war helped maintain large field armies that could be mobilised much more quickly allowing them to mount offensives in early spring before their opponents were ready 44 the french were nevertheless forced to retreat from most of the dutch republic which deeply shocked louis he retreated to st germain for a time where no one except a few intimates was allowed to disturb him 45 french military advantages allowed them however to hold their ground in alsace and the spanish netherlands while retaking franche comté by 1678 mutual exhaustion led to the treaty of nijmegen which was generally settled in france s favour and allowed louis to intervene in the scanian war despite the military defeat his ally sweden regained much of what it had lost under the 1679 treaties of saint germain en laye fontainebleau and lund imposed on denmark norway and brandenburg 46 yet louis s two primary goals the destruction of the dutch republic and the conquest of the spanish netherlands had failed 47 louis was at the height of his power but at the cost of uniting his opponents this increased as he continued his expansion in 1679 he dismissed his foreign minister simon arnauld marquis de pomponne because he was seen as having compromised too much with the allies louis maintained the strength of his army but in his next series of territorial claims avoided using military force alone rather he combined it with legal pretexts in his efforts to augment the boundaries of his kingdom contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously louis established the chambers of reunion to determine the full extent of his rights and obligations under those treaties silver coin of louis xiv dated 1674 first side of the image obverse the latin inscription is lvdovicvs xiiii d ei gra tia louis xiv by the grace of god second side of the image reverse the latin inscription is fran ciæ et navarræ rex 1674 king of france and of navarre 1674 cities and territories such as luxembourg and casale were prized for their strategic positions on the frontier and access to important waterways louis also sought strasbourg an important strategic crossing on the left bank of the rhine and theretofore a free imperial city of the holy roman empire annexing it and other territories in 1681 although a part of alsace strasbourg was not part of habsburg ruled alsace and was thus not ceded to france in the peace of westphalia following these annexations spain declared war precipitating the war of the reunions however the spanish were rapidly defeated because the emperor distracted by the great turkish war abandoned them and the dutch only supported them minimally by the truce of ratisbon in 1684 spain was forced to acquiesce in the french occupation of most of the conquered territories for 20 years 48 louis s policy of the réunions may have raised france to its greatest size and power during his reign but it alienated much of europe this poor public opinion was compounded by french actions off the barbary coast and at genoa first louis had algiers and tripoli two barbary pirate strongholds bombarded to obtain a favourable treaty and the liberation of christian slaves next in 1684 a punitive mission was launched against genoa in retaliation for its support for spain in previous wars although the genoese submitted and the doge led an official mission of apology to versailles france gained a reputation for brutality and arrogance european apprehension at growing french might and the realisation of the extent of the dragonnades effect discussed below led many states to abandon their alliances with france 49 accordingly by the late 1680s france became increasingly isolated in europe non european relations and the colonies further information french colonial empire and orientalism in early modern france the persian embassy to louis xiv sent by soltan hoseyn in 1715 ambassade de perse auprès de louis xiv studio of antoine coypel french colonies multiplied in africa the americas and asia during louis s reign and french explorers made important discoveries in north america in 1673 louis jolliet and jacques marquette discovered the mississippi river in 1682 rené robert cavelier sieur de la salle followed the mississippi to the gulf of mexico and claimed the vast mississippi basin in louis s name calling it louisiane french trading posts were also established in india at chandernagore and pondicherry and in the indian ocean at île bourbon throughout these regions louis and colbert embarked on an extensive program of architecture and urbanism meant to reflect the styles of versailles and paris and the gloire of the realm 50 siamese embassy of king narai to louis xiv in 1686 led by kosa pan engraving by nicolas larmessin meanwhile diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries in 1669 suleiman aga led an ottoman embassy to revive the old franco ottoman alliance 51 then in 1682 after the reception of the moroccan embassy of mohammed tenim in france moulay ismail sultan of morocco allowed french consular and commercial establishments in his country 52 in 1699 louis once again received a moroccan ambassador abdallah bin aisha and in 1715 he received a persian embassy led by mohammad reza beg from farther afield siam dispatched an embassy in 1684 reciprocated by the french magnificently the next year under alexandre chevalier de chaumont this in turn was succeeded by another siamese embassy under kosa pan superbly received at versailles in 1686 louis then sent another embassy in 1687 under simon de la loubère and french influence grew at the siamese court which granted mergui as a naval base to france however the death of narai king of ayutthaya the execution of his pro french minister constantine phaulkon and the siege of bangkok in 1688 ended this era of french influence 53 france also attempted to participate actively in jesuit missions to china to break the portuguese dominance there louis sent jesuit missionaries to the court of the kangxi emperor in 1685 jean de fontaney joachim bouvet jean françois gerbillon louis le comte and claude de visdelou 54 louis also received a chinese jesuit michael shen fu tsung at versailles in 1684 55 height of power centralisation of power portrait of louis xiv gray pastel on paper by charles le brun 1667 louvre museum by the early 1680s louis had greatly augmented french influence in the world domestically he successfully increased the influence of the crown and its authority over the church and aristocracy thus consolidating absolute monarchy in france louis initially supported traditional gallicanism which limited papal authority in france and convened an assembly of the french clergy in november 1681 before its dissolution eight months later the assembly had accepted the declaration of the clergy of france which increased royal authority at the expense of papal power without royal approval bishops could not leave france and appeals could not be made to the pope additionally government officials could not be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties although the king could not make ecclesiastical law all papal regulations without royal assent were invalid in france unsurprisingly the pope repudiated the declaration 56 louis receiving the doge of genoa at versailles on 15 may 1685 following the bombardment of genoa reparation faite à louis xiv par le doge de gênes 15 mai 1685 by claude guy halle versailles by attaching nobles to his court at versailles louis achieved increased control over the french aristocracy according to historian philip mansel the king turned the palace into an irresistible combination of marriage market employment agency and entertainment capital of aristocratic europe boasting the best theatre opera music gambling sex and most important hunting 57 apartments were built to house those willing to pay court to the king 58 however the pensions and privileges necessary to live in a style appropriate to their rank were only possible by waiting constantly on louis 59 for this purpose an elaborate court ritual was created wherein the king became the centre of attention and was observed throughout the day by the public with his excellent memory louis could then see who attended him at court and who was absent facilitating the subsequent distribution of favours and positions another tool louis used to control his nobility was censorship which often involved the opening of letters to discern their author s opinion of the government and king 58 moreover by entertaining impressing and domesticating them with extravagant luxury and other distractions louis not only cultivated public opinion of him but he also ensured the aristocracy remained under his scrutiny louis s extravagance at versailles extended far beyond the scope of elaborate court rituals he took delivery of an african elephant as a gift from the king of portugal 60 he encouraged leading nobles to live at versailles this along with the prohibition of private armies prevented them from passing time on their own estates and in their regional power bases from which they historically waged local wars and plotted resistance to royal authority louis thus compelled and seduced the old military aristocracy the nobility of the sword into becoming his ceremonial courtiers further weakening their power in their place he raised commoners or the more recently ennobled bureaucratic aristocracy the nobility of the robe he judged that royal authority thrived more surely by filling high executive and administrative positions with these men because they could be more easily dismissed than nobles of ancient lineage and entrenched influence it is believed that louis s policies were rooted in his experiences during the fronde when men of high birth readily took up the rebel cause against their king who was actually the kinsman of some this victory over the nobility may thus have ensured the end of major civil wars in france until the french revolution about a century later france as the pivot of warfare louis xiv under louis france was the leading european power and most wars pivoted around its aggressiveness no european state exceeded it in population and no one could match its wealth central location and very strong professional army it had largely avoided the devastation of the thirty years war its weaknesses included an inefficient financial system that was hard pressed to pay for its military adventures and the tendency of most other powers to gang up against it during louis s reign france fought three major wars the franco dutch war the nine years war and the war of the spanish succession there were also two lesser conflicts the war of devolution and the war of the reunions 61 62 the wars were very expensive but defined louis xiv s foreign policy and his personality shaped his approach impelled by a mix of commerce revenge and pique louis sensed that war was the ideal way to enhance his glory in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war he taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the french military 4 by 1695 france retained much of its dominance but had lost control of the seas to england and holland and most countries both protestant and catholic were in alliance against it sébastien le prestre de vauban france s leading military strategist warned louis in 1689 that a hostile alliance was too powerful at sea he recommended that france fight back by licensing french 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