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Text of the page (random words):
ecent usage these ethnic groups are referred to as the nahua peoples 22 23 linguistically the term aztecan is still used about the branch of the uto aztecan languages also sometimes called the uto nahuan languages that includes the nahuatl language and its closest relatives pochutec and pipil 24 to the aztecs themselves the word aztec was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group rather it was an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups not all of them nahuatl speaking that claimed heritage from the mythic place of origin aztlan alexander von humboldt originated the modern usage of aztec in 1810 as a collective term applied to all the people linked by trade custom religion and language to the mexica state and the triple alliance in 1843 with the publication of the work of william h prescott on the history of the conquest of mexico the term was adopted by most of the world including 19th century mexican scholars who saw it as a way to distinguish present day mexicans from pre conquest mexicans this usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years but the term aztec is still more common 15 history main article history of the aztecs sources of knowledge see also aztec codex and spanish conquest of the aztec empire sources for the conquest of mesoamerica a page from the codex boturini depicting the departure from aztlán knowledge of aztec society rests on several different sources the many archeological remains of everything from temple pyramids to thatched huts can be used to understand many of the aspects of what the aztec world was like however archeologists often must rely on knowledge from other sources to interpret the historical context of artifacts there are many written texts by the indigenous people and spaniards of the early colonial period that contain invaluable information about pre colonial aztec history these texts provide insight into the political histories of various aztec city states and their ruling lineages such histories were produced as well in pictorial codices some of these manuscripts were entirely pictorial often with glyphs in the postconquest era many other texts were written in latin script by either literate aztecs or by spanish friars who interviewed the native people about their customs and stories an important pictorial and alphabetic text produced in the early sixteenth century was codex mendoza named after the first viceroy of mexico and perhaps commissioned by him to inform the spanish crown about the political and economic structure of the aztec empire it has information naming the polities that the triple alliance conquered the types of taxes rendered to the aztec empire and the class gender structure of their society 25 many written annals exist written by local nahua historians recording the histories of their polity these annals used pictorial histories and were subsequently transformed into alphabetic annals in latin script 26 well known native chroniclers and annalists are chimalpahin of amecameca chalco fernando alvarado tezozomoc of tenochtitlan alva ixtlilxochitl of texcoco juan bautista pomar of texcoco and diego muñoz camargo of tlaxcala there are also many accounts by spanish conquerors who participated in the spanish invasion such as bernal díaz del castillo who wrote a full history of the conquest spanish friars also produced documentation in chronicles and other types of accounts of key importance is toribio de benavente motolinia one of the first twelve franciscans arriving in mexico in 1524 another franciscan of great importance was fray juan de torquemada author of monarquia indiana dominican diego durán also wrote extensively about pre hispanic religion as well as the history of the mexica 27 an invaluable source of information about many aspects of aztec religious thought political and social structure as well as the history of the spanish conquest from the mexica viewpoint is the florentine codex produced between 1545 and 1576 in the form of an ethnographic encyclopedia written bilingually in spanish and nahuatl by franciscan friar bernardino de sahagún and indigenous informants and scribes it contains knowledge about many aspects of precolonial society from religion calendrics botany zoology trades and crafts and history 28 29 another source of knowledge is the cultures and customs of the contemporary nahuatl speakers who can often provide insights into what pre hispanic ways of life may have been like scholarly study of aztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies combining archeological knowledge with ethnohistorical and ethnographic information 30 central mexico in the classic and postclassic the valley of mexico with the locations of the main city states in 1519 it is a matter of debate whether the enormous city of teotihuacan was inhabited by speakers of nahuatl or whether nahuas had not yet arrived in central mexico in the classic period it is generally agreed that the nahua peoples were not indigenous to the highlands of central mexico but that they gradually migrated into the region from somewhere in northwestern mexico at the fall of teotihuacan in the 6th century ce some city states rose to power in central mexico some of them including cholula and xochicalco probably inhabited by nahuatl speakers one study has suggested that nahuas originally inhabited the bajío area around guanajuato which reached a population peak in the 6th century after which the population quickly diminished during a subsequent dry period this depopulation of the bajío coincided with an incursion of new populations into the valley of mexico which suggests that this marks the influx of nahuatl speakers into the region 31 these people populated central mexico dislocating speakers of oto manguean languages as they spread their political influence south as the former nomadic hunter gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations of mesoamerica adopting religious and cultural practices the foundation for later aztec culture was laid after 900 ce during the postclassic period many sites almost certainly inhabited by nahuatl speakers became powerful among them are the site of tula hidalgo and also city states such as tenayuca and colhuacan in the valley of mexico and cuauhnahuac in morelos 32 mexica migration and foundation of tenochtitlan in the ethnohistorical sources from the colonial period the mexica themselves describe their arrival in the valley of mexico the ethnonym aztec nahuatl aztecah means people from aztlan aztlan being a mythical place of origin toward the north hence the term applied to all those peoples who claimed to carry the heritage from this mythical place the migration stories of the mexica tribe tell how they traveled with other tribes including the tlaxcalteca tepaneca and acolhua but that eventually their tribal deity huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other aztec tribes and take on the name mexica 33 at the time of their arrival there were many aztec city states in the region the most powerful were colhuacan to the south and azcapotzalco to the west the tepanecs of azcapotzalco soon expelled the mexica from chapultepec and executed the first aztec royal family except queen chimalxochitl ii in 1299 colhuacan ruler cocoxtli permitted them to settle in the empty barrens of tizapan where they were eventually assimilated into culhuacan culture 34 the noble lineage of colhuacan traced its roots back to the legendary city state of tula and by marrying into colhua families the mexica now appropriated this heritage after living in colhuacan the mexica were again expelled and were forced to move 35 according to aztec legend in 1323 the mexica were shown a vision of an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus eating a snake the vision indicated where they were to build their settlement the mexica founded tenochtitlan on a small swampy island in lake texcoco the inland lake of the basin of mexico the year of foundation is usually given as 1325 in 1376 the mexica royal dynasty was founded when acamapichtli was elected as the first huey tlatoani of tenochtitlan 36 early mexica rulers rulers tlahtoqueh of tenochtitlan rulers subject to azcapotzalco acamapichtli 1375 1395 huitzilihhuitl 1396 1417 chimalpopoca 1417 1427 independent rulers itzcoatl 1427 1440 motecuzoma i ilhuicamina 1440 1469 axayacatl 1469 1481 tizoc 1481 1486 ahuitzotl 1486 1502 motecuzoma ii xocoyotzin 1502 1520 cuitlahuac 1520 cuauhtemoc 1520 1521 colonial indigenous governors juan velázquez tlacotzin 1525 andrés de tapia motelchiuh 1525 1530 pablo xochiquentzin 1532 1536 diego de alvarado huanitzin 1539 1541 diego de san francisco tehuetzquititzin 1541 1554 esteban de guzmán 1554 1557 cristóbal de guzmán cecetzin 1557 1562 luis de santa maría nanacacipactzin 1563 1565 v t e in the first 50 years after the founding of the mexica dynasty the mexica were a tributary of azcapotzalco which had become a major regional power under the ruler tezozomoc the mexica supplied the tepaneca with warriors for their successful conquest campaigns in the region and received part of the tribute from the conquered city states in this way the political standing and economy of tenochtitlan gradually grew 37 in 1396 at acamapichtli s death his son huitzilihhuitl lit hummingbird feather became ruler married to tezozomoc s daughter the relationship with azcapotzalco remained close chimalpopoca lit she smokes like a shield son of huitzilihhuitl became ruler of tenochtitlan in 1417 in 1418 azcapotzalco initiated a war against the acolhua of texcoco and killed their ruler ixtlilxochitl even though ixtlilxochitl was married to chimalpopoca s daughter the mexica ruler continued to support tezozomoc tezozomoc died in 1426 and his sons began a struggle for the rulership of azcapotzalco during this power struggle chimalpopoca died probably killed by tezozomoc s son maxtla who saw him as a competitor 38 itzcoatl brother of huitzilihhuitl and uncle of chimalpopoca was elected the next mexica tlatoani the mexica were now in open war with azcapotzalco and itzcoatl petitioned for an alliance with nezahualcoyotl son of the slain texcocan ruler ixtlilxochitl against maxtla itzcoatl also allied with maxtla s brother totoquihuaztli ruler of the tepanec city of tlacopan the triple alliance of tenochtitlan texcoco and tlacopan besieged azcapotzalco and in 1428 they destroyed the city and sacrificed maxtla through this victory tenochtitlan became the dominant city state in the valley of mexico and the alliance between the three city states provided the basis on which the aztec empire was built 39 itzcoatl proceeded by securing a power basis for tenochtitlan by conquering the city states on the southern lake including culhuacan xochimilco cuitlahuac and mizquic these states had an economy based on highly productive chinampa agriculture cultivating human made extensions of rich soil in the shallow lake xochimilco itzcoatl then undertook further conquests in the valley of morelos subjecting the city state of cuauhnahuac today cuernavaca 40 early rulers of the aztec empire main article aztec empire motecuzoma i ilhuicamina the coronation of moctezuma i tovar codex in 1440 moteuczomatzin ilhuicamina nb 4 lit he frowns like a lord he shoots the sky nb 5 was elected tlatoani he was the son of huitzilihhuitl brother of chimalpopoca and had served as the war leader of his uncle itzcoatl in the war against the tepanecs the accession of a new ruler in the dominant city state was often an occasion for subjected cities to rebel by refusing to pay taxes this meant that new rulers began their rule with a coronation campaign often against rebellious provinces but also sometimes demonstrating their military might by making new conquests motecuzoma tested the attitudes of the cities around the valley by requesting laborers for the enlargement of the great temple of tenochtitlan only the city of chalco refused to provide laborers and hostilities between chalco and tenochtitlan would persist until the 1450s 41 42 motecuzoma then reconquered the cities in the valley of morelos and guerrero and then later undertook new conquests in the huaxtec region of northern veracruz and the mixtec region of coixtlahuaca and large parts of oaxaca and later again in central and southern veracruz with conquests at cosamalopan ahuilizapan and cuetlaxtlan 43 during this period the city states of tlaxcalan cholula and huexotzinco emerged as major competitors to the imperial expansion and they supplied warriors to several of the cities conquered motecuzoma therefore initiated a state of low intensity warfare against these three cities staging minor skirmishes called flower wars nahuatl xochiyaoyotl against them perhaps as a strategy of exhaustion 44 45 in the valley of oaxaca which was invaded by moctezuma s forces in the 1450s the aztec empire would oppress the mixtec and zapotec peoples who they would also require to pay tributes 46 motecuzoma i also consolidated the political structure of the triple alliance and the internal political organization of tenochtitlan his brother tlacaelel served as his main advisor nahuatl languages cihuacoatl and he is considered responsible for the major political reforms in this period consolidating the power of the noble class nahuatl languages pipiltin and instituting a set of legal codes and the practice of reinstating conquered rulers in their cities bound by fealty to the mexica tlatoani 47 48 44 axayacatl and tizoc in 1469 the next ruler was axayacatl lit water mask son of itzcoatl s son tezozomoc and motecuzoma i s daughter atotoztli ii nb 6 he undertook a successful coronation campaign far south of tenochtitlan against the zapotecs in the isthmus of tehuantepec axayacatl also conquered the independent mexica city of tlatelolco located on the northern part of the island where tenochtitlan was also located the tlatelolco ruler moquihuix was married to axayacatl s sister and his alleged mistreatment of her was used as an excuse to incorporate tlatelolco and its important market directly under the control of the tlatoani of tenochtitlan 49 axayacatl then conquered areas in central guerrero the puebla valley on the gulf coast and against the otomi and matlatzinca in the toluca valley the toluca valley was a buffer zone against the powerful tarascan state in michoacan against which axayacatl turned next in the major campaign against the tarascans nahuatl languages michhuahqueh in 1478 1479 the aztec forces were repelled by a well organized defense axayacatl was soundly defeated in a battle at tlaximaloyan today tajimaroa losing most of his 32 000 men and only barely escaping back to tenochtitlan with the remnants of his army 50 in 1481 at axayacatls death his older brother tizoc was elected ruler tizoc s coronation campaign against the otomi of metztitlan failed as he lost the major battle and only managed to secure 40 prisoners to be sacrificed for his coronation c...
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