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directly to flemish separatist ideologies though they did not become very popular after the war many of those who had collaborated including many of the guards at fort breendonk were tried imprisoned or shot allied liberation 1944 1945 edit belgium was liberated late in 1944 by allied forces on 3 september 1944 the welsh guards liberated brussels the british second army seized antwerp on 4 of september 1944 and the first canadian army began conducting combat operations around the port that same month antwerp became a highly prized and heavily fought over objective because its deep water port was necessary to keep the allied armies supplied the battle of the scheldt in october 1944 was fought primarily on dutch soil but with the objective of opening the way for boats to antwerp the port city was also the ultimate objective of german armies during the ardennes offensive which resulted in heavy fighting on belgian soil during the winter of 1944 1945 following liberation 10 000 belgians who had remained in the country during the occupation were mobilised into the belgian army in 57 fusilier battalions wwii to present edit royal question edit main article royal question immediately after the war léopold iii who had surrendered to the german army in 1940 was released however the issue of whether he had betrayed his country by surrendering while most government ministers had escaped to the united kingdom presented a constitutional dilemma the belgian public was concerned that he might be a collaborator with the nazis he had met hitler in berchtesgaden on november 19 1940 and had even remarried to lilian baels during the war many belgians especially the socialists strongly opposed his return to power he was kept in exile in switzerland until 1950 while his brother prince charles presided as regent a 1950 referendum produced a very close result in flanders the electorate voted 70 in favour of his return but wallonia voted 58 against brussels also returned a 51 no vote although the referendum narrowly produced a favourable result for léopold about 57 68 in the country as a whole the militant socialist movement in liège hainaut and other urban centres incited major protests and even called a general strike against his return léopold iii abdicated on july 16 1951 in favour of his son baudouin occupation of germany korean war and edc edit map showing the area of west germany occupied by belgian forces after the second world war known as fba bsd belgian soldiers were assigned to occupy a section of west germany known as belgian forces in germany or fba bsd the last belgian soldiers left germany in 2002 128 in 1950 a unit of volunteers from the belgian army was sent to fight for the united nations in the korean war the belgian united nations command or bunc arrived in korea in early 1951 and fought at several key engagements of the conflict including at the battle of the imjin river haktang ni and chatkol over 300 belgians were killed in action the last belgian soldiers returned from korea in 1955 129 130 benelux and europe edit paul henri spaak three times prime minister and author of the spaak report was a staunch believer in international bodies including the ecsc and eec see also benelux nato european coal and steel community and european economic community on september 5 1944 the benelux customs union was created it entered into force in 1948 and ceased to exist on 1 november 1960 when it was replaced by the benelux economic union after a treaty signed in the hague on february 3 1958 the benelux parliament was created in 1955 the treaty of brussels signed on 17 march 1948 by belgium the netherlands luxembourg france and the united kingdom is considered the precursor to the nato agreement which belgium became an official member of on april 4 1949 the headquarters of nato are located in brussels and the headquarters of shape near mons belgium was also one of the original founding members of the european coal and steel community ecsc in july 1952 and of the european economic community formed by the treaty of rome on march 25 1957 131 belgium has been a member of the schengen area since 1985 132 belgian economic miracle edit main article belgian economic miracle marshall plan edit the american marshall plan gave belgium 559 million in grants from 1948 to 1951 a central goal of the erp was to promote the growth of productivity along the lines of american management and labor practices the interest among some belgian employers in increasing rates of productivity per worker was motivated by the rise in wage levels but the americans also intended to inject a new spirit of productivity in belgian industries which implied among other measures a reinforcement of structures of corporatist negotiation after the belated establishment of the belgian office for the increase of productivity in 1952 the political character of the program became apparent the policy of productivity was successful for a time because it matched the evolution of social reforms this policy success however was rendered impotent by the failure of the economic dimension of the productivity campaigns the americans had in effect failed to recognize the structural importance of the major financial groups which dominated heavy industry in belgium by not carrying out any large scale programs of innovation and investment in the key sectors that they controlled in the aftermath of the war these holding companies greatly restricted the scope for american influence consequently it was by other means such as the training of managers that american paradigms entered belgian economic culture 133 growth and poverty edit after the war the government cancelled belgium s debts it was during this period that the well known belgian highways were built in addition both the economy and the average standard of living rose significantly as noted by robert gildea social and economic policy was designed to restore liberal capitalism tempered by social reform as prepared for during the war trade unions were also involved in a price and wage policy to cut inflation and this together with the allied use of antwerp as the main entry point for war supplies produced the so called belgian miracle of high economic growth combined with high wages 134 according to one study belgian workers by 1961 earned wages second only to those of the french in the common market area and earned 40 more than their dutch counterparts 135 despite postwar affluence however many belgians continued to live in poverty an organisation of several poverty action groups known as the national action for security of subsistence claimed that more than 900 000 belgians about 10 of the population lived in poverty in 1967 while in the early 1970s a group of social scientists called the working group on alternative economics estimated that about 14 5 of the belgian population lived in poverty 136 because flanders had been widely devastated during the war and had been largely agricultural since the belgian uprising it benefited most from the marshall plan its standing as an economically backward agricultural region meant that it obtained support from belgium s membership of the european union and its predecessors at the same time wallonia experienced a slow relative decline as the products of its mines and mills came to be less in demand the economic balance between the two parts of the country has remained less in favour of wallonia than it was before 1939 second school war 1950 1959 edit main article second school war after victory in the 1950 elections a christian social party psc cvp government came to power the new education minister pierre harmel increased the wages of teachers in private catholic schools and introduced laws linking the subsidies for private schools to the number of pupils these measures were perceived by the anti clerical liberals and socialists as a declaration of war when the 1954 elections brought to power a coalition of socialists and liberals the new education minister leo collard immediately set out to reverse the measures taken by his predecessor founding a large number of secular schools and only permitting teachers with a diploma forcing many priests out of the profession these measures sparked mass protests from the catholic bloc a compromise was eventually found by the next government a catholic minority led by gaston eyskens and the schools war was concluded by the november 6 1958 school pact 137 congolese independence and the congo crisis edit belgian soldier taking cover by the corpses of dead hostages november 1964 in stanleyville during operation dragon rouge main article congo crisis after riots in the congo in 1959 the scheduled gradual transition to independence was sped up dramatically in june 1960 the belgian congo was replaced by the short lived first republic of congo led by the democratically elected congolese statesman patrice lumumba belgian forces withdrew leaving the military force publique under congo s control order broke down as mutinying soldiers attacked whites who remained in the country belgians forces were briefly sent to evacuate belgian nationals and army officers in july 1960 the southern state of katanga province declared its independence forming the state of katanga katanga s bid for sovereignty was supported by belgian mining companies and soldiers who had considerable assets in the area later that month united nations peacekeepers were deployed to the country during this period of anarchy the region of south kasai also declared independence western powers including belgium supported joseph mobutu who installed a right wing regime in the congo lumumba was murdered and civil war ensued belgian paratroopers were again deployed this time to rescue civilian hostages captured in stanleyville during an operation known as dragon rouge at the end mobutu emerged as the ruler of the re unified country which he named zaire general strike of 1960 61 edit walloon workers demonstration in brussels in the winter of 1960 see also 1960 1961 winter general strike in december 1960 wallonia was gripped by a general strike in response to the general decline of wallonian manufacturing in a period of turbulence in the aftermath of the second schools war the wallonian workers demanded federalism in addition to structural reforms even though the strike had been intended to be nationwide flemish workers appeared reluctant to support it the strike was led by andré renard the founder of renardism which combined militant socialism with walloon nationalism the historian renée fox described wallonia s alienation at the beginning of the 1960s a major reversal in the relationship between flanders and wallonia was taking place flanders had entered a vigorous post world war ii period of industrialization and a significant percentage of the foreign capital particularly from the united states coming into belgium to support new industries was being invested in flanders in contrast wallonia s coal mines and time worn steel plants and factories were in crisis the region had lost thousands of jobs and much investment capital a new dutch speaking upwardly mobile populist bourgeoisie was not only becoming visible and vocal in flemish movements but also in both the local and national policy the strike of december 1960 against the austerity law of gaston eyskens was replaced by a collective expression of the frustrations anxieties and grievances that wallonia was experiencing in response to its altered situation and by the demands of the newly formed walloon popular movement for regional autonomy for wallonia 138 nationwide the economy was generally healthy with an annual growth rate of 5 in the 1960s however old inefficient factories were being shut down in textiles and leather goods coal miners were angered by the closure of used up mines limburg miners at the zwartberg mine rioted in 1966 to protest its closure two miners were killed by police and ten were injured while nineteen policemen were hurt 139 in 1973 a series of worldwide crises adversely affected the belgian economy linguistic wars edit main article flemish movement this flemish resurgence has been accompanied by a corresponding shift of political power to the flemish who constituted the majority of the population of around 60 an official dutch translation of the constitution was only accepted in 1967 140 the linguistic wars reached a climax in 1968 with the splitting of the catholic university of leuven along linguistic lines into the katholieke universiteit leuven and université catholique de louvain the government of paul vanden boeynants fell over the issue in 1968 rise of the federal state edit the flag of flanders incorporating the flemish lion also used by the flemish movement main article state reform in belgium the successive linguistic disputes made the successive belgian governments very unstable the three major parties all split in two according to their french or dutch speaking electorate a language border was determined by the first gilson act of november 8 1962 the boundaries of certain provinces arrondissements and municipalities were modified and facilities for linguistic minorities were introduced in 25 municipalities on august 2 1963 the second gilson act entered into force fixing the division of belgium into four language areas a dutch a french and a german language area with brussels as a bilingual area in 1970 there was a first state reform which resulted in the establishment of three cultural communities dutch french and german this reform was a response to the flemish demand for cultural autonomy the constitutional revision of 1970 also laid the foundations for the establishment of three regions which was a response to the demand of the walloons and the french speaking inhabitants of brussels for economic autonomy on february 18 1970 prime minister gaston eyskens announced the end of la belgique de papa the second state reform took place in 1980 when the cultural communities became communities the communities assumed the competencies of the cultural communities with regard to cultural matters and became responsible for the matters relating to the person such as health and youth policy from then on these three communities were known as the flemish community the french community and the german speaking community two regions were established as well in 1980 the flemish region and the walloon region however in flanders it was decided in 1980 to immediately merge the institutions of the community and the region although the creation of a brussels region was provided for in 1970 the brussels capital region was not established until the third state reform during the third state reform in 1988 and 1989 under prime minister wilfried martens the brussels capital region was established with its own regional institutions as well as dutch and french institutions for community matters the brussels capital region remained limited to 19 m...
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