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l scholar katherine franke to label gender harassment as a technology of sexism 34 gender harassment has nothing to do with sexual attraction and is not a type of sexual advance this can make it confusing that it is a type of sexual harassment because the word sexual seems to imply underlying sexual desire 34 initial legal and social theories of sexual harassment often viewed it as motivated by sexual desire however explanations of the underlying cause later changed to a male desire to dominate or a desire for anyone to maintain their sex based social status 35 these theories reframe sexual harassment as harassment based on sex or gender rather than something inherently sexual various legal and sociological definitions of sexual harassment include non sexual sexist behavior but the emphasis on the word sexual means the definitions often cause confusion and debate 35 36 some laws explicitly cover unwanted sexual and sex based behavior under their definition of sexual harassment while others define sex based harassment and sexual harassment as two different types of harassment 37 some researchers have advocated for the term sexual harassment to be replaced with sex based harassment to emphasize the fact that these types of harassment center on gender not the presence of sexual desire in harassment 34 36 in the late 1990s some legal scholars began to advocate for more explicitly including gender harassment in sexual harassment law but this was a minority view 38 existing sexual harassment law frequently does cover some instances of gender harassment but it is often viewed as less severe than other types of sexual harassment in a legal context however psychologists continue to emphasize the study of gender harassment because it is by far the most common type of harassment and has major negative consequences both for the individuals faced with it and the groups who are exposed to repeated gender harassment 39 aspects edit quid pro quo exchange illustrated in a lithograph created around 1912 called executing a writ so like this i don t owe any rent there is no universal definition of sexual harassment understandings of it vary across legal scientific and cultural settings 40 social scientists define sexual harassment by the type of behavior involved and its effect on victims by these definitions sexual harassment includes hostile sexist acts gender harassment unwanted sexual attention and sexual coercion 3 legal definitions of workplace sexual harassment tend to classify it into quid pro quo demands for sexual favors in exchange for job impacts or offensive conduct that creates a hostile environment laws differ on whether both are considered illegal sexual harassment and whether sexual harassment includes only sexually related harassment or also harassment based on gender 6 sexual harassment also includes other types examples can be making sexual comments or jokes touching someone without their consent indecent exposure 41 and sending unwanted messages actions like this can make people feel uncomfortable or even disrespected because of things like this a lot of workplaces have created policies to prevent sexual harassment and also to help people report it 21 labeling as sexual harassment edit one of the difficulties in understanding sexual harassment is that it involves a range of behaviors in most cases although not in all cases it is difficult for the victim to describe what they experienced this can be related to difficulty classifying the situation or to stress and humiliation experienced by the recipient moreover behavior and motives vary between individual cases 42 many instances of sexual harassment are not actually labeled that way by the involved parties for female victims of experiences that match social science definitions of sexual harassment victims only self label the experience as sexual harassment 25 of the time the rate is even lower for male victims however whether victims label an incident as sexual harassment or not they report the same levels of distress and negative impact 43 this labeling issue was first discovered after other researchers found that victims of rape are similarly unlikely to label their experience as rape 44 many contextual factors affect how likely people are to label an incident as sexual harassment and the power dynamics between the perpetrator and victim are a key influence on people s perceptions people s labeling decisions are also correlated with their gender and relationship to gender roles 45 during the 1990s and 2000s women who self labeled their experiences as sexual harassment were often derided as too sensitive or aiming to make trouble in addition to being questioned about misinterpreting the harassment especially if it could be claimed to be unintentional behavior one 2001 analysis found that women often self labeled their experiences of unwanted gendered and sexual behavior as sexism or the product of a sexualized environment rather than sexual harassment 46 in some cases visible cleavage have been labeled as sexual harassment 41 types of sexual harassment edit scientists commonly classify types of sexual harassment via fitzgerald s tripartite model of sexual harassment which has been validated across gender ethnicity nation and industry the model divides sexual harassment into gender harassment unwanted sexual attention and sexual coercion 3 poster against calling women sexualized names as part of an anti sexual harassment campaign by afis in 2000 gender harassment includes insults based on gender stereotypes sexual slurs or imagery and other degrading or hostile communications that aim to put people down and push them out due to their sex 3 there are two types of gender harassment sexist hostility like insulting gendered jokes insults based on gender stereotypes or even sabotage and crude harassment which includes gendered slurs and sexualized insults 44 in contrast unwanted sexual attention refers to unwelcome sexual advances like inappropriately talking about sex pestering someone for sexual or romantic purposes non consensual physical touch and in extreme cases sexual assault sexual coercion includes explicit and implicit attempts to bribe or threaten someone into sexual cooperation 3 gender harassment is by far the most common type of sexual harassment and coercion is the rarest still popular awareness of harassment is the opposite making it harder to identify and understand sexual harassment psychology researcher lilia cortina developed an iceberg model to describe the many behaviors of sexual harassment showing how sexual coercion and unwanted sexual attention are the small set of harassment behaviors easily viewable on the surface but the vast majority of sexual harassment types lie underneath the surface in the category of gender harassment 3 intersectional forms of sexual harassment edit when women of color are sexually harassed it often includes racial harassment and when non straight women are harassed it often is a combination of sexual and heterosexist harassment both populations experience much greater harassment than people with only one of their intersecting identities 44 racialized sexual harassment may involve sexual remarks that also bring up race pet names with racial histories or even explicitly racialized nicknames all of these may be built off of existing stereotypes that combine race and gender 47 when men sexually harass men it tends to take the form of gender harassment for the purpose of punishing their targets for deviating from traditional male gender roles the harasser may see their victim as not fulfilling traditional masculinity values whether they are gay young or inexperienced 48 women harassing men is reported less frequently than men harassing women 41 women of color edit mural painted for the montevideo free of harassment campaign the sexual harassment women of color face is often ignored when discussions about the sexual harassment women face occur 49 harassment of women of color tends to stem from racial discrimination 49 poor african american women are more likely to experience sexual harassment but less likely to be seen as a victim 50 51 conditions like these make it difficult for women of color to report sexual harassment allowing the cycle to continue 52 earlier studies revealed that there was no difference between the sexual harassment rates of white women and women of color 53 54 however evidence suggests that women of color experience sexual harassment on more severe terms 55 56 race and gender influence most of the sexual harassment that women of color face women of color are less likely to report sexual harassment if the perpetrator is of the same race this is known as the code of silence the race of the harasser influences this and predominantly affects women of color 57 black women do not usually see things that a white woman would claim to be sexual harassment because they are accustomed to it it is normal to them and so there is not much of a problem 49 something unique to the sexual harassment of women of color is the common bond factor the common bond factor is when a man of color sees someone of their own race or culture and they feel as if it is okay to harass them sexually they think they can act and speak without regard for the law because they feel it is not being broken 57 the perception of sexual harassment from women of color includes racism and sexism whereas white women s perception only includes sexism there is this interlocking of relations commonly known as intersectionality within the sexual harassment women of color face between racism and sexism white women when speaking about sexual harassment speak from the role of a victim whereas women of color speak from the role of a harasser women of color as well have stereotypes taken into consideration when it comes to harassment these stereotypes make it difficult for women of color to come forward about sexual harassment as they will likely not be believed 57 for instance there is the stereotype that latin women are super emotional and tend to overreact this stereotype may be conveyed when a latina woman comes forward about sexual harassment resulting in her claim not being taken seriously speaking up results in stereotypes being put on the person coming forward making them uncomfortable with doing so 57 similarly it is difficult for women of color to be supported when speaking out as their experiences are different from those of white women as is the case with anita hill 58 particularly the feminist movement is geared towards helping white women rather than women of color due to women of color s experiences being foreign in turn women of color do not join feminist movements or groups because they do not see their experiences reflected 58 there is a relationship between legal status and sexual harassment there is an intersectionality between them citizen status can influence women experiencing or reporting sexual harassment being undocumented can make it difficult to come forward for fear of being deported 49 white women with citizenship say that sexual harassment is unwanted behavior women of color without citizenship found it difficult to explain what they thought sexual harassment was but that it did include race 49 this however makes it difficult for black women to differentiate sexual harassment in the workplace from sexual harassment in society 49 motivations for sexual harassment edit author martha langelan describes four different classes of harassers 59 portrayal of catcalling a common form of street harassment a predatory harasser a person who gets sexual thrills from humiliating others this harasser may become involved in sexual extortion and may frequently harass just to see how targets respond those who do not resist may even become targets for rape a dominance harasser the most common type who engages in harassing behavior as an ego boost strategic or territorial harassers who seek to maintain privilege in jobs or physical locations for example a man s harassment of a female employee in a predominantly male occupation a street harasser another type of sexual harassment performed in public places by strangers street harassment includes verbal and nonverbal behavior remarks that are frequently sexual in nature and comments on physical appearance or a person s presence in public 60 the perpetrators of sexual harassment are more likely to be male than female in one 2018 survey of u s federal workers who were asked to recall the most distressing times they had been sexually harassed 82 of the harassers were men researchers theorize that men are more likely to sexually harass because it is an expression of power that strengthens the harasser s gender based social status because today s societies empower men over people of other genders sexual harassment is most effective at reinforcing the social privileges of men 61 this power based theory of harassment also explains why sexual harassment often targets and punishes people for deviating from traditional gender roles people are more likely to sexually harass when they hold hostile sexist beliefs and believe in the gender binary thinking that men and women should stay in certain proper roles however whether they actually harass others strongly depends on the situation organizations that tolerate or do not care about harassment and places that prioritize men by numbers or leadership are very likely to have sexual harassment occur 61 sexual harassment s usefulness in reinforcing power and gender roles shapes how it occurs even when harassment seems to express a harasser s sexual desire it is often motivated by the desire to punish someone for not conforming to gender roles or to devalue women due to their gender harassment is often ambient not targeted at an individual but public or pervasive within a setting affecting many bystanders even targeted harassment can affect other observers when it occurs publicly 44 situations edit 1874 painting by b woltze weimar portraying a man sexually harassing a woman in mourning on a train sexual harassment may occur in a variety of circumstances and in places as varied as factories schools colleges the theater and the music business 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 often the perpetrator has or is about to have power or authority over the victim owing to differences in social political educational or employment relationships as well as in age harassment relationships are specified in many ways the perpetrator can be anyone such as a client a partner a co worker a parent or legal guardian a relative a teacher or professor a student a friend or a stranger harassment can occur in varying locations in schools 69 colleges workplaces in public and in other places harassment can occur whether or not there are witnesses to it the perpetrator may be completely unaware that their behavior is offensive or constitutes sexual harassment the perpetrator may be completely unaware th...
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