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stefanidakis, gwyn, 1993
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petrol in other english speaking countries is a petrochemical product a transparent yellowish and flammable liquid normally used as a fuel for spark ignited internal combustion engines it is chemically composed of organic compounds derived from the fractional distillation of petroleum and later chemically enhanced with gasoline additives it is a high volume profitable product produced in crude oil refineries 40 middle distillates edit kerosene also known as paraffin is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum it is widely used as a fuel in aviation as well as households its name derives from the greek κηρός kērós meaning wax it was registered as a trademark by nova scotia geologist and inventor abraham gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generic trademark it is sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage 41 jet fuel or aviation turbine fuel atf also abbreviated avtur is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas turbine engines it is colorless to straw colored in appearance the most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are jet a and jet a 1 which are produced to a standardized international specification the only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine engine powered aviation is jet b which is used for its enhanced cold weather performance fuel oil is any of various fractions obtained from the distillation of petroleum crude oil such oils include distillates the lighter fractions and residues the heavier fractions fuel oils include heavy fuel oil bunker fuel marine fuel oil mfo furnace oil fo gas oil gasoil heating oils such as home heating oil diesel fuel and others diesel fuel also called diesel oil fuel oil historically or simply diesel is any liquid fuel specifically designed for use in a diesel engine a type of internal combustion engine in which fuel ignition takes place as a result of compression of the inlet air and then injection of fuel without a spark therefore diesel fuel needs good compression ignition characteristics heavy distillates and residuum edit these require blending various feedstocks mixing appropriate additives providing short term storage and preparation for bulk loading to trucks barges product ships and railcars this classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions 2 heavy fuel oil hfo is a fuel oil of a tar like consistency also known as bunker fuel or residual fuel oil hfo is the residual mixture left over from the distillation and cracking of crude oil in oil refineries 42 generally it has a boiling temperature between 350 and 500 c and is significantly more viscous than diesel fuel 43 as it is created through the extraction of more valuable components of its petroleum precursor hfo contains various undesirable compounds and elements which include aromatics sulfur nitrogen vanadium and others 42 these non hydrocarbon contaminants significantly increase toxic gas and particulate emissions upon combustion 44 such as sulfur dioxide carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides 45 46 motor oil engine oil or engine lubricant is any one of various substances used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines motor oils typically consist of base oils enhanced with various additives particularly antiwear additives detergents dispersants and for multi grade oils viscosity index improvers citation needed 47 the main function of motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge one of the functions of dispersants and varnish detergents it also neutralizes acids that originate from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant detergents improves the sealing of piston rings and cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts 48 paraffin wax or petroleum wax is a soft colorless solid derived from petroleum coal or oil shale that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules containing between 20 and 40 carbon atoms it is solid at room temperature and begins to melt above approximately 37 c 99 f 49 and its boiling point is above 370 c 698 f 49 common applications for paraffin wax include lubrication electrical insulation and candles 50 dyed paraffin wax can be made into crayons tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation tar can be produced from carbon rich materials such as coal wood petroleum peat and other organic matter 51 bitumen uk ˈ b ɪ tʃ ʊ m ɪ n bih chuum in us b ɪ ˈ tj uː m ɪ n b aɪ ⓘ bih tew min by 52 is an immensely viscous constituent of petroleum depending on its exact composition it can be a sticky black liquid or an apparently solid mass that behaves as a liquid over very large time scales in american english the material is commonly referred to as asphalt whether found in natural deposits or refined from petroleum the substance is classed as a pitch 53 prior to the 20th century the term asphaltum was in general use 54 the word derives from the ancient greek word ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos which referred to natural bitumen or pitch the largest natural deposit of bitumen in the world is the pitch lake of southwest trinidad which is estimated to contain 10 million tons 55 other products edit sulfur or sulfuric acid byproducts of sulfur removal from petroleum which may have up to a couple of percent sulfur as organic sulfur containing compounds sulfur and sulfuric acid are useful industrial materials sulfuric acid is usually prepared and shipped as the acid precursor oleum petroleum coke abbreviated coke pet coke or petcoke is a final carbon rich solid material that derives from oil refining and is one type of the group of fuels referred to as cokes petcoke is the coke that in particular derives from a final cracking process a thermo based chemical engineering process that splits long chain hydrocarbons of petroleum into shorter chains that takes place in units termed coker units 56 other types of coke are derived from coal stated succinctly coke is the carbonization product of high boiling hydrocarbon fractions obtained in petroleum processing heavy residues 56 petcoke is also produced in the production of synthetic crude oil syncrude from bitumen extracted from canada s oil sands and from venezuela s orinoco oil sands 57 58 in petroleum coker units residual oils from other distillation processes used in petroleum refining are treated at a high temperature and pressure leaving the petcoke after driving off gases and volatiles and separating off remaining light and heavy oils these processes are termed coking processes and most typically employ chemical engineering plant operations for the specific process of delayed coking petrochemicals sometimes abbreviated as petchems 59 are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by refining some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas or renewable sources such as maize palm fruit or sugar cane over 6 000 items are made from petroleum waste by products including fertilizer floor coverings perfume insecticide petroleum jelly soap and vitamin capsules 60 sample of crude oil petroleum cylinders of liquified petroleum gas sample of gasoline sample of kerosene sample of diesel fuel motor oil pile of asphalt covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete sulphur chemical processes edit storage tanks and towers at shell puget sound refinery shell oil company anacortes washington desalter edit a desalter is a process unit in an oil refinery that removes salt from the crude oil the salt is dissolved in the water in the crude oil not in the crude oil itself the desalting is usually the first process in crude oil refining the salt content after the desalter is usually measured in ptb pounds of salt per thousand barrels of crude oil 61 another specification is basic sediment and water 62 63 64 atmospheric and vacuum distillation edit see also continuous distillation atmospheric and vacuum distillation of crude oils are the main primary separation processes producing various straight run products e g gasoline to lube oils vacuum gas oils distillation of crude oil is typically performed first 65 under atmospheric pressure and then under a vacuum low boiling fractions usually vaporize below 400 c at atmospheric pressure without cracking the hydrocarbon compounds therefore all the low boiling fractions of crude oil are separated by atmospheric distillation a crude oil distillation unit cdu consists of the pre flash distillation column the petroleum products obtained from the distillation process are light medium and heavy naphtha kerosene diesel and oil residue 66 67 68 69 70 71 vacuum distillation or distillation under reduced pressure is a type of distillation performed under reduced pressure which allows the purification of compounds not readily distilled at ambient pressures or simply to save time or energy this technique separates compounds based on differences in their boiling points this technique is used when the boiling point of the desired compound is difficult to achieve or will cause the compound to decompose 72 reduced pressures decrease the boiling point of compounds the reduction in boiling point can be calculated using a temperature pressure nomograph using the clausius clapeyron relation 73 67 68 69 70 71 hydrodesulfurization edit hydrodesulfurization hds also called hydrotreatment or hydrotreating is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur s from natural gas and from refined petroleum products such as gasoline or petrol jet fuel kerosene diesel fuel and fuel oils 74 75 76 the purpose of removing the sulfur and creating products such as ultra low sulfur diesel is to reduce the sulfur dioxide so 2 emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles aircraft railroad locomotives ships gas or oil burning power plants residential and industrial furnaces and other forms of fuel combustion 1 77 78 catalytic reforming edit catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert naphthas from crude oil into liquid products called reformates which are premium blending stocks for high octane gasoline the process converts low octane linear hydrocarbons paraffins into branched alkanes isoparaffins and cyclic naphthenes which are then partially dehydrogenated to produce high octane aromatic hydrocarbons 79 the dehydrogenation also produces significant amounts of byproduct hydrogen gas which is fed into other refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization a side reaction is hydrogenolysis which produces light hydrocarbons of lower value such as methane ethane propane and butanes 80 81 fluid catalytic cracking edit fluid catalytic cracking fcc is the conversion process used in petroleum refineries to convert the high boiling point high molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions of petroleum crude oils into gasoline alkene gases and other petroleum products 82 83 84 the cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally done by thermal cracking now virtually replaced by catalytic cracking which yields greater volumes of high octane rating gasoline and produces by product gases with more carbon carbon double bonds i e alkenes that are of greater economic value than the gases produced by thermal cracking 85 3 86 hydrocracker edit hydrocracking is a catalytic cracking process assisted by the presence of added hydrogen gas unlike a hydrotreater hydrocracking uses hydrogen to break c c bonds hydrotreatment is conducted prior to hydrocracking to protect the catalysts in a hydrocracking process in 2010 265 million tonnes 261 000 000 long tons 292 000 000 short tons of petroleum was processed with this technology the main feedstock is vacuum gas oil a heavy fraction of petroleum 87 88 89 90 merox edit merox is an acronym for mercaptan oxidation it is a proprietary catalytic chemical process developed by uop used in oil refineries and natural gas processing plants to remove mercaptans from lpg propane butanes light naphthas kerosene and jet fuel by converting them to liquid hydrocarbon disulfides alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known e g doctor sweetening process and caustic washing coker unit edit a coker or coker unit is an oil refinery processing unit that converts the residual oil from the vacuum distillation column into low molecular weight hydrocarbon gases naphtha light and heavy gas oils and petroleum coke the process thermally cracks the long chain hydrocarbon molecules in the residual oil feed into shorter chain molecules leaving behind the excess carbon in the form of petroleum coke a delayed coker is a type of coker whose process consists of heating a residual oil feed to its thermal cracking temperature in a furnace with multiple parallel passes this cracks the heavy long chain hydrocarbon molecules of the residual oil into coker gas oil and petroleum coke 91 92 93 alkylation unit edit an alkylation unit alky is one of the conversion processes used in petroleum refineries it is used to convert isobutane and low molecular weight alkenes primarily a mixture of propene and butenes into alkylate a high octane gasoline component the process occurs in the presence of an acid such as sulfuric acid h 2 so 4 or hydrofluoric acid hf as catalyst depending on the acid used the unit is called a sulfuric acid alkylation unit saau or hydrofluoric acid alkylation unit hfau in short the alky produces a high quality gasoline blending stock by combining two shorter hydrocarbon molecules into one longer chain gasoline range molecule by mixing isobutane with a light olefin such as propylene or butylene from the refinery s fluid catalytic cracking unit fccu in the presence of an acid catalyst 94 95 dimerization unit edit dimerization unit converts olefins into higher octane gasoline blending components for example butenes can be dimerized into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane there are also other uses for dimerization gasoline produced through dimerization is highly unsaturated and very reactive it tends spontaneously to form gums for this reason the effluent from the dimerization needs to be blended into the finished gasoline pool immediately or hydrogenated isomerization edit isomerization converts linear molecules such as normal pentane to higher octane branched molecules for blending into gasoline or feed to alkylation units also used to convert linear normal butane into isobutane for use in the alkylation unit steam reforming edit steam reforming or steam methane reforming smr is a method for producing syngas hydrogen and carbon monoxide by reaction of hydrocarbons with water commonly natural gas is the feedstock the main purpose of this technology is often hydrogen production although syngas has multiple other uses such as production of ammonia or methanol the reaction is represented by this equilibrium 96 lng storage tan...
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