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od beatified 23 october 1988 main articles nicolas steno scientific contributions and stratigraphy historical development in october 1666 fishermen caught a huge shark near the town of livorno ferdinando ii de medici grand duke of tuscany ordered its head to be sent to nicolas steno a danish anatomist who had moved to italy steno noted that the shark s teeth bore a striking resemblance to objects found embedded within rock formations that his contemporaries called glossopetrae or tongue stones ancient authorities such as the roman author pliny the elder in his naturalis historia had suggested that these stones fell from the sky or from the moon 166 fabio colonna however had already shown by burning the material that glossopetrae were actually organic matter limestone rather than soil minerals 167 168 169 building on colonna s work by using the contemporary corpuscular theory of matter steno argued that the chemical composition of fossils could be altered without changing their form steno s work on shark teeth led him to the question of how any solid object could come to be found inside another solid object such as a rock or a layer of rock the solid bodies within solids that attracted steensen s interest included not only fossils as we would define them today but minerals crystals encrustations veins and even entire rock layers or strata his seminal 1669 work de solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus introduced the fundamental principles of stratigraphy that remain the bedrock of modern geological surveying 170 and make steno one of the founders of modern geology the law of superposition the principle of original horizontality the principle of lateral continuity and the principle of cross cutting relationships were all originally proposed by steno originally a lutheran steno moved to catholic italy and in 1667 converted denied office in the protestant north he continued his geological studies but in 1675 became a priest and soon after was appointed a bishop writing 16 major theological works 171 astrophysics edit the reverend father angelo secchi known for stellar classification secchi classes scientific career fields astrophysics ecclesiastical career ordained 12 september 1847 further information stellar classification history a new astronomy soon to be called astrophysics began to emerge when william hyde wollaston and joseph von fraunhofer independently discovered that when decomposing the light from the sun a multitude of dark lines regions where there was less or no light were observed in the spectrum 172 by 1860 the physicist gustav kirchhoff and the chemist robert bunsen had demonstrated that the dark lines in the solar spectrum corresponded to bright lines in the spectra of known gases specific lines corresponding to unique chemical elements 173 kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by absorption by chemical elements in the solar atmosphere 174 in this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the sun and stars were also found on earth starting in 1863 and using instruments of his own invention including the heliospectrograph star spectrograph and telespectroscope fr angelo secchi an italian catholic priest and director of the observatory at the pontifical gregorian university then called the roman college began collecting the spectra of stars accumulating some 4 000 stellar spectrograms through analysis of this data he discovered that the stars come in a limited number of distinct types and subtypes which could be distinguished by their different spectral patterns 175 from this concept he developed the first system of stellar classification the five secchi classes while his system was superseded by the harvard system he still stands as discoverer of the principle of stellar classification which is a fundamental element of astrophysics his recognition of molecular bands of carbon radicals in the spectra of some stars made him the discoverer of carbon stars which made one of his spectral classes he also demonstrated that certain absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun were caused by absorption in the earth s atmosphere genetics edit the right reverend gregor mendel known for founder of the modern science of genetics scientific career fields genetics ecclesiastical career ordained 25 december 1846 176 main article history of genetics gregor mendel was an austrian scientist and augustinian friar who began experimenting with peas around 1856 observing the processes of pollination at his monastery in what is now the czech republic mendel studied and developed theories about the field of science now called genetics mendel published his results in 1866 in the journal of the brno natural history society the paper was not widely read nor understood and soon after its publication mendel was elected abbot of his monastery he continued experimenting with bees but his work went unrecognized until various scientists resurrected his theories around 1900 after his death 177 mendel had joined the brno augustinian monastery in 1843 but also trained as a scientist at the olmutz philosophical institute and the university of vienna the brno monastery was a center of scholarship with an extensive library and a tradition of scientific research 178 where charles darwin s theories suggested a mechanism for improvement of species over generations mendel s observations explained how new species could emerge though darwin and mendel never collaborated they were aware of each other s work darwin read a paper by wilhelm olbers focke which extensively referenced mendel bill bryson wrote that without realizing it darwin and mendel laid the groundwork for all of the life sciences in the twentieth century darwin saw that all living things are connected that ultimately they trace their ancestry to a single common source mendel s work provided the mechanism to explain how that could happen 179 biologist j b s haldane and others brought together the principles of mendelian inheritance with darwinian principles of evolution to form the field of genetics known as modern evolutionary synthesis 180 physical cosmology edit the reverend monsignor georges lemaître known for big bang hubble lemaître law friedmann lemaître robertson walker metric lemaître tolman metric lemaître coordinates cosmological constant scientific career fields physical cosmology ecclesiastical career ordained 22 september 1923 main article big bang further information religious interpretations of the big bang theory christianity the big bang model or theory is now the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe and was first proposed by belgian priest georges lemaître astronomer and professor of physics at the catholic university of leuven with a ph d from mit lemaître was the first to argue that the recession of galaxies is evidence of an expanding universe and to connect the observational hubble lemaître law 181 with the solution to the einstein field equations in the general theory of relativity for a homogenous and isotropic universe 182 183 184 that work led lemaître to propose what he called the hypothesis of the primeval atom now regarded as the first formulation of the big bang theory of the origin of the universe 185 186 lemaître viewed his work as a scientist as neither supporting nor contradicting the truths of faith 187 and he was strongly opposed to making any arguments that mixed science with religion 188 an effort sometimes referred to as concordism although he held that the two were not in conflict 189 in a 1933 new york times article he asserted there is no conflict between religion and science to reconcile he was always anxious that his work on cosmology should be judged on purely scientific criteria 190 lemaître s concern that interactions between religion and science could hinder scientific acceptance as well as leave faith vulnerable to future shifts in scientific theory led historian of science dominique lambert to single him out as perhaps modern catholicism s most prominent discordist and leading intellectual opponent of concordism 191 lemaître was reportedly horrified when in 1951 pope pius xii gave an address to the pontifical academy of sciences with lemaître in the audience in which he drew a parallel between the new big bang cosmology and the christian doctrine of creatio ex nihilo lemaître appealed directly to the pope to avoid making any further public statements on religious or philosophical interpretations of matters concerning physical cosmology 192 modern book of nature edit philosophy i e natural philosophy is written in this grand book i mean the universe which stands continually open to our gaze galileo galilei the assayer 1623 193 science and salvation edit see also salvation in christianity catholicism the holy bible and the phenomena of nature proceed alike from the divine word the former as the dictate of the holy ghost and the latter as the observant executrix of god s commands galileo galilei 1623 194 we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind which are sometimes found too among christians which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which from the arguments and controversies they spark lead many minds to conclude that faith and science are mutually opposed pope paul vi 1965 195 the new science with its methods and the freedom of research which they implied obliged theologians to examine their own criteria of scriptural interpretation galileo a sincere believer showed himself to be more perceptive in this regard than the theologians who opposed him pope john paul ii 1992 196 timeline galileo and the church 1633 galileo sentenced to house arrest 197 1642 plans for galileo to be buried in the main body of the basilica of santa croce next to the tombs of the ruling family of tuscany are abandoned when pope urban viii objects 198 199 200 1718 the inquisition lifts the ban on reprinting galileo s works excluding the condemned dialogue 201 1741 pope benedict xiv authorizes the publication of galileo s complete scientific works 202 including a mildly censored version of the dialogue 203 f 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism is removed from the index librorum prohibitorum though the specific ban on uncensored versions of the dialogue and copernicus s de revolutionibus remains 205 1835 all official opposition to heliocentrism by the church effectively ends as these works are finally dropped from the index g 1939 in his first speech to the pontifical academy of sciences pope pius xii describes galileo as being among the most audacious heroes of research 206 1979 pope john paul ii orders a formal re examination of the evidence against galileo by the pontifical council for culture 207 208 1992 pope john paul ii expresses formal regret for how the galileo affair was handled and acknowledges errors committed by the church tribunal 196 2008 the vatican proposes to complete the rehabilitation of galileo by announcing plans to erect a statue of him inside the vatican walls 209 in the early 17th century galileo lost two different arguments with the church his first argument about natural philosophy was whether the earth moves by 1835 however galileo had effectively won that argument when the church removed all works related to heliocentrism from the index librorum prohibitorum g galileo s second argument and arguably his more direct provocation to 17th century theologians and the one that more directly led to his arrest was about the correct way of interpreting scripture which he discussed at length in his 1613 letter to benedetto castelli and in his 1615 letter to the grand duchess christina by 1893 however he had won that argument as well in 1893 pope leo xiii issued the encyclical providentissimus deus on the study of holy scripture which adopted the exact approach to interpreting scripture that galileo had advocated for nearly three centuries earlier although the encyclical was prompted by 19th century developments in evolution and geology its discussion of figurative language and the common manner of speech essentially reproduced galileo s logic 104 and codified galileo s argument that the bible s authority is limited to human salvation and does not extend to nature no real disagreement can exist between the theologian and the scientist provided each keeps within his own limits if nevertheless there is a disagreement it should be remembered that the sacred writers or more truly the spirit of god who spoke through them did not wish to teach men such truths as the inner structure of visible objects which do not help anyone to salvation and that for this reason rather than trying to provide a scientific exposition of nature they sometimes describe and treat these matters either in a somewhat figurative language or as the common manner of speech those times required and indeed still requires nowadays in everyday life even amongst most learned people 210 the galilean principle that science and theology occupy different spheres the holy ghost intended to teach us how to go to heaven not how the heavens go is now a part of catholic doctrine the catechism of the catholic church reinforces this view of science by asserting that scientific investigation of the secrets of nature is not a threat to faith but instead an undertaking that provided it does not override moral laws is led by the hand of god methodical research in all branches of knowledge provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws can never conflict with the faith because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same god the humble and persevering investigator of the secrets of nature is being led as it were by the hand of god despite himself for it is god the conserver of all things who made them what they are 211 in 1992 pope john paul ii wrote that galileo was more perceptive about scriptural interpretation than the theologians who opposed him 196 evolution edit main article evolution and the catholic church further information humani generis evolution the science historian john hedley brooke observes that the 17th century metaphysics of devout scientists like galileo and kepler and their immediate successors which saw nature s immutability as a reflection of a similarly perfect and changless creator 73 was a poor fit for the science of evolution 212 the catholic church holds no official position on the theory of creation or evolution leaving the specifics of either theistic evolution or literal creationism to the individual within certain parameters established by the church according to the catechism of the catholic church any believer may accept either literal or special creation within the period of an actual six day twenty four hour period or they may accept the belief that the earth evolved over time under the guidance of god catholicism holds that...
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